Sociology
Introduction
Sociology entails an assessment of groups, including interactions. More so, it explores societies and social relations. According to sociologists, society involves a group of individuals who live in a specific geographical area and acknowledge a common culture. Sociology emphasizes on culture where people share certain practices, norms and beliefs. For people to live together, social rules are established. The paper reflects on the vital aspects of sociology.
History of Sociology
Several modern and ancient philosophers strive to establish the connection between individuals and social structures. Notably, themes on social conflict, economics, cohesion, and power have emerged as sociologists study this discipline.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
According to research, French Essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes (1748-1836) used the concept sociology in 1780. Comte reinvented this term when he was a philosopher student of Claude Henry de Saint-Simon (1760-1825). The two individuals associated social scientists with the study of sociology. Comte stated that laws that direct the society enabled sociologists to determine obstacles like poor education and poverty (Hobson et al. 2010). He derived the term positivism as the scientific study of social structures.
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
She was the first woman sociologist who observed several social science elements like class, religion, administration, suicide, and gender equality. She published the Illustrations of Political Economy in 1831 which highlighted the doctrines of economics. Notably, she provided the significance of social institutions in her prominent works that included Society in America (1837) and Restropect of Western Travel (1838). She explored the capitalism system in the US where laborers were exposed to deplorable working conditions whereas business owners acquired a lot of wealth.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Karl Marx coauthored the Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) in 1848 which provided divergent views on Comte’s ideologies of positivism. He highlighted that societies changed due to competition for production in societies. His philosophy emerged when industrial revolution was rampant and capitalism had infiltrated the world economy (Hobson et al. 2010). Marx indicated that private ownership of resources would attract demonstrations which would result in communism where equitable distribution of resources is applicable. He reflected on how social conflict fostered change in society which is applied by modern sociologists.
Herbert Spencer (1858-1903)
In 1873, Herbert Spencer opposed Comte’s philosophy and Marx’s approach on class in his book The study of Sociology. This book was the first source to define sociology. Herbert’s work promoted capitalism.
Georg Simmel (1858-1918)
He was a German art critic who focused on social and political themes. He stressed on anti-positivism where he emphasized on the use of money, social conflict, and racial disparity. Additionally, individual culture was a major component of his discussions. Contemporary sociologists like Durkheim, Mead and Weber overstated Simmel’s work.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
In 1895, Durkheim established a sociology department in the University of Bordeaux. Additionally, he issued the Rules of the Sociological Method (Maia, 2017). He believed that people passed through levels in the societal structure through meritocracy. In his studies, sociologists could assess social facts where healthy communities are stable whereas pathological groups encounter failure in social norms. In 1897, he printed the Suicide which highlighted suicide rates in Catholics and Protestants.
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
George Herbert defined the importance of interactions that influenced human behaviors. He described how social process affected the state of mind. According to Mead, certain individuals who impacted on other people are referred as significant other while folks whom are not important are framed as generalized others.
Max Weber (1864-1920)
In 1919, Max Weber established a sociology section at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich. His work highlighted on the political themes in Russia and social aspects that influenced laborers. In 1904, he published a book named The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. He was against the use of standard scientific procedures when predicting group behaviors. Apart from culture, Weber stressed on verstehen which implied deep analysis. Max Weber issued The Nature of Social Action in 1922 where he defined sociology as analysis of social actions by explaining the implications (Hobson et al. 2010). He cooperated with other sociologists to enforce antipositivism in which subjectivity is a major theme of social norms and values.
William Edward Burghardt “W. E. B.” du Bois (1868-1963)
He is attributed to the establishment of the first sociology department in the University of Chicago. W. E. B. Du Bois formulated several methodologies that impacted on sociology (Hobson et al. 2010). His vast knowledge was evident when he graduated from Harvard University as the first African American with a doctorate.
Theoretical Framework
Conflict Theory
The approach relies on competition for inadequate resources as a major factor in the society. According to Karl Marx, individuals in different social classes compete for education, employment opportunities and housing to better their lives. Inequalities in institutions like government agencies signal competition (Sever, 2012). People utilize their power to influence social institutions. Contextually, Ludwig Gumplowicz suggested that war and civilization steer authority in the society. Political interests and economic inequalities stimulate social conflict according to Marx and Max Weber. Education, race, gender and reactions influences the level of conflict in the society. Simmel suggests that conflict stabilizes societies since people intensify solidarity towards a certain goal.
In the modern world, this theory is applicable in food industry where the right of information about food and profits that corporations attain. In another case, local farmers and farming conglomerates can argue. The model is evident in scenarios that involve certain food taste and preference due to unique cultural background. Criticisms of this theory include it focuses on conflict and ignores stability in the society. It disregards that some societies progress slowly instead of abrupt changes in social structures.
Functionalist theory
According to this approach, the society is an arrangement that satisfies biological and social requirements. It is derived from Hebert Spencer who compares the human body with societal functions. Human organs depicts parts of the society which are social institutions. Like governments, religion and healthcare providers. Durkheim detailed how societies modify to maintain stability through values and languages. The sociologist highlighted the importance of social facts including laws, morals, values, fashion, rituals, and beliefs unlike individual traits when evaluating the society (Sever, 2012). Robert Merton who is a Structural functionalist highlighted the consequences of manifest roles, and latent functions in social processes. Unfortunately, the approach does not provide adequate explanations on social change. The theory is also repetitive. In the contemporary society, sociologists do not utilize the model in macro level analysis but employ it in mid-level analysis.
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
This theory reflects on the relationship between individuals at workplace. The micro-level theory describes communication as a key factor that makes social sense in the society. George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), founded this theory whereas his student Herbert Blumer defined the notion the way humans associate with elements to create meaning according to the circumstances. For instance, people who love reading engage in bedtime stories with their families. Social scientists consider patterns of communication when assessing symbolic interactionist theory. With this model, studies apply qualitative research techniques like in depth interviews since they target symbolic worlds. Ideally, constructivism emanates from this theory and illustrates cognitive construction of reality by humans (Sever, 2012). It measures deviance in the society. Researchers criticize the theory due to lack of information on objectives. In contemporary sociology, symbolic interactionist theory is evident in after World War II and in 1960s and 1970s.
Reasons for Studying Sociology
Sociology is important since it enables people to comprehend different cultural set ups consequently facilitating positive interactions. It also imparts useful knowledge on economic levels, education, ethnicity and sexual perceptions. Through sociology, students ask questions to increase their level of awareness hence promoting their critical thinking. More so, sociology intensifies the capacity of humans to view the world in different angles. People who incorporate sociology comprehend diverse cultural set ups and can work in several workplaces. At workstation, the phenomena is essential in the preparation of reports and communication. It helps analysts to collect data, interpret and present statistical information in the form of surveys and polls. Sociology impacts on the understanding of bureaucracies and social systems in offices. Science students study sociology because health, and illness are sociocultural fundamentals (Doda, 2005). Notably, social forces assist in shaping the goals and vision of organizations.
Sociological Research
Social research questions target social situations and influence expectations. Scientific researchers utilizes empirical evidence, meta-analysis, hypothesis, and scientific methods in sociological research.
Approaches to Sociological Research
Scientific Approach
Scientific models are useful in the study of human behavior. Through scientific process, sociologists obtain parameters that are accurate. This approach liaises with theories when collecting empirical data. It consists of six steps.
The Scientific Process
Ask a Question
In this step, sociologists ask questions, describe an objective and recognize the area of study. The question ought to be universal. More so, they should incorporate operational themes. For instance, how do differing individual hygiene habits influence cultural value? The questions should be reliable since results ought to be uniform.
Research Existing Sources
In this step researchers acquire information about previous researchers which supplements their studies. Literature review enables sociologists to visit the library and online platforms where they obtain sufficient information about a theme.
Formulate a Hypothesis
A hypothesis provides assumptions on how variables associate. According to sociologists, hypothesis describe how human relations influence ideologies (Doda, 2005). According to sociologists, independent variables alters processes while dependent variables denote implications.
Design and Conduct a Study
In this step researchers determines the methods that they will employ in data collection. Sociologists apply two models namely qualitative methods and quantitative methods when measuring data. Research attracts primary data and secondary data.
Draw Conclusions
From the collected data, sociologists derive conclusions after applying critical analysis. Conclusions enable researchers to derive vital themes from the study.
Report Results
In the end, researches display their social data through reports. Sociologists convey vital information on social structures to learners in publications.
Interpretive Framework
In this approach, hypothesis-testing model is not applicable. The model focuses on interpretive perspectives where sociologists analyze social worlds from the view point of participants consequently promoting in depth awareness. Interpretive framework is descriptive and explores topics through observation.
Research Methods
Surveys
This scientific research method utilizes questionnaire when collecting information from individuals. According to Bhattacherjee (2005) the scientific research method enables participants to express their opinion on certain subjects. Survey aims specific population just like the case of a census. The three types of surveys include longitudinal, panel and cross sectional.
Experiments
Sociologists follow the principles of experiments when using this research method. It measures the causes and impacts of social phenomena (Bhattacherjee, 2005; Doda, 2005). Sociologists select a group of people and classify them according to age, race and education. Afterwards, they test their performance which is graded.
Case Study
In this method, sociologists undertake and in depth analysis of a phenomenon. The case under consideration serves as a representative of a larger social group. Researchers often analyze documents, conduct interviews, and participate in direct observation in case studies.
Observation
This is a qualitative method where sociologists collect information by witnessing social processes, events, behaviors and activities. A common technique in this procedure entails participant observation where a sociologist actively participates in communal affairs while studying social groups. Researchers collect information without engaging in community affairs through non-participant observation.
Ethical Concerns
According to the American Sociological Association (ASA), sociologists encounter several ethical concerns when creating awareness in social groups. Participants and students should consider the stipulated codes of ethics formulated by ASA. When associating with humanity themes, sociologists should incorporate skill and fairness. More so, they ought to consider safety and acquire the consent of the participants. Privacy is a major ethical issue that sociologists support (Doda, 2005; Jedynak, 2014). Researchers should display all the relevant data according to the law like financial information. It is essential for sociologists to avoid conflict of interest where an organization that funds a certain project influences the results. According to Weber, personal traits also influence the perception of sociologists. Including value neutrality is an important ethical concern among sociologists.
Studies dictate that sociologists should avoid information distortion. Readers are cautioned against deployment of prejudice on cultural institutions because it undermines awareness (Jedynak, 2014). Assessment ought to incorporate comprehensive views rather than predicted outcomes and personal ideas.
Conclusion
Sociology plays a major role in community development. The history of sociology insights on how contemporary and modern studies emulated social values that shaped perspectives. Sociological research requires investigators to consider a suitable strategy in a certain community before application. Unfortunately, ethical issues are inevitable in sociology and learners should always consider code of ethics in the society.
References
Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices.
Doda, Z. (2005). Introduction to sociology. Published Lecture Notes, Ethiopia.
Hobson, J., Lawson, G., & Rosenberg, J. (2010). Historical sociology.
Jedynak, W. (2014). Ethical Problems of the Sociologists Profession. Polish Perspective. Economics & Sociology, 7(4), 104.
Maia, J. M. E. (2017). The history of sociology as a field of research and some recent trends in Brazilian social thought. História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos, 24(1), 111-128.
Sever, M. (2012). A critical look at the theories of sociology of education. Journal of Human Sciences, 9(1), 671-650.