The Siwalik sediments

The Siwalik sediments

CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION

        The Siwalik sediments have been named after the Siwalik Hills near Hardwar (Cutely Vide Falconer, 1832). The frontal Himalayan Siwalik sediments extend from West of Jammu to East of Assam in the Indian Territory. The rocks of Siwalik Groups have been divided into three stratigraphic units namely, the Lower Siwalik or Nahan, the Middle Siwalik and the Upper Siwalik.

Although the Siwalik Group, which is world famous for its rich fossil content, has been studied in its varied aspects by a number of workers for almost a century, yet, no serious attention has been paid to the sedimentology of the Nahan Formation which forms the lowermost lithostratigraphic unit of the Siwalik Group. Except for the scattered remarks, detailed published sedimentological account of the Nahan Formation of the type area Nahan and adjacent regions is nearly lacking. However, a brief resume of the work done by earlier workers on flora and fauna, structure and field disposition, stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Siwalik Group exposed in different parts of the Frontal Himalaya is summarized herein.

                                           1.1   DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

1.11   LOCATION AND APPROACH TO THE AREA AND CLIMATE

1.11 A   Location and Approach to the Area

The terrain falls on the Survey of India 1:50000, toposheet number 53 F/2, 53 F/3, 53 F/6 and 53 F/7. The more important place in the region including Nahan and Kala Amb are connected with Chandigarh, Shimla, Dehradun and Delhi by all weather metalled roads. The proposed research area has an aerial extent of about 504 sq. km.

1.11 B   Climate, Flora and Fauna

The frontal Himalayan region has a tropical monsoon type of climate.  The average annual rainfall in the area varies from 90 cm to 170 cm.  South-West monsoon is experienced in the months of July, August and September. In the months of December and January, retreating winter rains are recorded. The area is characterized by the presence of tropical deciduous forests.

The natural vegetation in the Siwalik Hills is represented by thorny shrubs, bushes, and trees such as khair (Acacia catechu), safed kikar (Acacia leucophalea), neem (Azadirachta indica), shisham (Dalbergia sissoc), khajur (Phoenix sylvestris), pipal (Ficus religiosa), dau (Woodfordia floribunda), bamboo (Bambusa mutans), mango (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica papaya) and jamun (Eugenia jambolana). The cultivated crops include wheat (Triticum vulgare), rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), potato (Solanum tuberosum), ginger (Zingiber officinalis), spinach (Spinach oleracea), mustard (Sinapis harta) and fenugreek (Trigonella loenum-graecum).

A variety of wild and domesticated animals inhabit the region. The wild fauna includes langurs (Presbytis entellus), monkeys (Macacus mutata), bears (Ursus torauatus), pigs (Sus scrofa), cats (Felis bengalensis), jackals (Canus aureus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), snakes (Naja sp.), squirrels (Funambulus pennanti). The domesticated animal group includes cows (Bos indicus), buffalos (Bison sp.), goats (Capra hircus), sheeps (Ovis aries), mule (Equus asinus caballus), dogs (Canis lupas) and hens (Gallus gallus).

1.2    RESUME OF PREVIOUS WORK

                        Published literature on the sedimentological aspects of the Nahan Formation exposed in the type area Nahan and adjoining regions is rather scanty. An attempt is made, in this part of the thesis, to summarize the more significant contributions on the flora and fauna of the Siwalik Group; its distribution; stratigraphic and structural characteristics; and the sedimentological characteristics of the Siwalik Group exposed in different parts of the Himalaya.

1.21   Flora and Fauna

The Siwalik Group is a vertebrate paleontologist’s paradise. Falconer (1832, 1868), Lydekker (1880), Pilgrim (1913), and Colbert (1934, 1935) were the seminal workers who described the Siwalik mammals.

During the past three decades the fossil content of the Siwalik Group has been studied by a number of workers. Saxena (1996) described the palynology of the Upper Siwalik sediments of northwestern Himalaya. Bhat and Pandita (2001) describe the microfossils from the Nagrota Formation, Upper Siwalik Subgroup and Jammu Hills. Prasad (2001) gives an introduction to the fauna of the Siwalik system. Barry et al. (2002) describe the Faunal and environmental change in the late Miocene Siwaliks of northern Pakistan. Kapoor et al. (2003) described the paleobotanical constraints on paleoenviornmental and paleoclimatic implications to Siwalik rocks of Nurpur region and Dharamsala Formation, Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh. Behrensmeyer et al. (2007) described the late Miocene flora from northern Pakistan. Vinay Bhargav et al. in (2008) describe the distinctive patterns in habitat association and distribution of tiger beetles in the Siwalik landscape of northwestern India. Bhandari and Kundal in (2008) discovered ostracodes from the Nagrota Formation, Upper Siwalik subgroup Jammu, India. Bhat et al. (2008) describe the depositional origin of tuffaceous units in the Pliocene Upper Siwalik subgroup, Jammu, northwestern Himalaya, India. Sharma et al. (2009) gives the floral diversity and limnological studies in and around Dholbaha dam (Punjab Siwalik, India) and also described the diversity of butterflies (lepidoptera:insecta) from Dholbaha dam in Hoshiyarpur district in Punjab Siwalik, India. Kumar and Sharma (2011) give the status and conservation of some commercially exploited medicinal and aromatic plants of Shakumbhari Devi region of Siwalik Hills. Sharma et al. (2011) described the conservation status of some important plants in the Siwalik Himalaya of Uttrakhand, India. Singh et al. (2011) described the Late Miocene record of paleovegetation from Siwalik paleosoles of the Ramnagar sub-basin, India. Khan et al. (2011) explain the floral diversity during Plio-Pleistocene Siwalik sedimentation (Kimin Formation) in Arunachal Pradesh. Joshi and Singh (2012) described the unusual behavioral responses of Siwalik elephants. Singhal and Patnaik (2012) described a fossil palm leaf impression from -11.2 Ma old, Siwalik deposits of Kangra valley, Himachal Pradesh and new muroid rodent and sivapethicus dental remains from the Lower Siwalik deposits of Ramnagar in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Kundal (2013) discovered Late Pliocene (piacenazian stage) fossil molluscs from Upper Siwalik subgroup of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Paudyal (2013) gives the Cenozoic vertebrate fossils from the Nepal Himalaya. Nanda (2013) discussed the Upper Siwalik faunas of the Himalayan foothills. Chakaraborty et al. (2013) described the fluvial trace fossils in the Middle Siwalik (sarmatian- pontian) of Darjeeling Himalayas, India. Sehgal (2013) gives a revised mammalian biostratigraphy of the Lower Siwalik sediments of Ramnagar in Jammu and Kashmir, India and its faunal correlation. Rawat and Kharwal (2014) described the ethnobotenical studies of weeds flora in Siwalik Hills, Himachal Pradesh, India.  Chopra et al. (2014) described the avian diversity of Lower Siwalik foothills, India. Stidham et al. (2014) described a pelican Tarsometatarsus (Aves:Pelecanidae) from the latest Pliocene Siwaliks of India. Sankhyan and Sharma (2014) described in situ dental remains of Deinotherium from northwest India Siwaliks. Mahasin et al. (2014) described the occurrence of gynocardia odorata. Robert Brown (Anhariaceae, formly flacourtiaceae) from the Plio-Pleistocene sediments of Arunachal Pradesh, northwest India and its paleoclimatic and phytogeographic significance and in the same year also gives the fossil evidence of insect folivory in the eastern Himalayan Neogene Siwalik forests. Bhandari and Tiwari (2014) described the rodent fossils from Dharamsala Group in Himachal Pradesh: addition to pre-Siwalik Himalayan Miocene fauna. Patnaik (2015) describe the diet and habitat changes among Siwalik herbivorous mammals in response to Neogene and quaternary climate changes. Amit and Ambika (2015) describe high-altitude plants in era of climate change in Nepal Himalaya.  Mahasin et al. (2015) gives the leaf cuticular morphology of some angiosperm taxa from the Siwalik sediments (Middle Miocene to Lower Pleistocene) of Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya: systematic and palaeoclimatic implications. Kundal (2015) gives the microfossil based paleoecology and paleocommunity structure of Upper Siwalik deposits of Jammu, Jandak, India. Roohi et al. (2015) describe the enamel hypoplasia in Siwalik Rhinocerotids and its correlation with Neogene climate. Blinkhorn (2015) describe Ostrich expansion into India during the Late Pleistocene. Khan et al. (2015) gives plant–arthropod associations from the Siwalik forests (middle Miocene) of Darjeeling Sub-Himalaya, India. Rawat (2015) suggests a new geological model for future hydrocarbon exploration in Indian sedimentary basins. Kundal (2015) explain the microfossils based paleoecology and paleocommunity structure of Upper Siwalik deposits of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Sharma et al. (2015) gives the microfossil assemblage from Dhok Pathan Formation (Middle Siwaliks) exposed near Polian Prohita, Una district, Himachal Pradesh, India. Samiullah et al. (2015) gives the evolution, taxonomy and biogeography of Gazella lydekkeri from Dhok Bun Ameer Khatoon, Lower Siwaliks of Pakistan. Parmar et al. (2015) explain the biochronological significance of Cricetid rodents from the Lower Siwalik Subgroup of Jammu, India. Aftab et al. (2016) describe the Progiraffa (Artiodactyla: Ruminantia: Giraffidae) from the Lower Siwalik Subgroup Miocene of Pakistan. Nanda et al. (2016) gives the new fossil reptile records from the Siwalik of north India. Patnaik and Prasad (2016) describe the terrestrial mammals and flora of the Indian subcontinent in Neogene climate. Flynn et al. (2016) gives a long stratigraphic sequence for the later Cenozoic of South Asia. Aftab et al. (2016) gives the Progiraffa (Artiodactyla: Ruminantia: Giraffidae) from the Lower Siwalik Subgroup (Miocene) of Pakistan. Sao et al. (2016) describe the magnetic polarity of masol 1 locality deposits, Siwalik frontal range, northwestern India. Moigne et al. (2016) gives the faunal assemblage of the paleonto-archeological localities of the Late Pliocene Quranwala Zone, Masol Formation, and Siwalik Range in northwestern India. Gaillard et al. (2016) explain the lithic industries on the fossiliferous outcrops of the Late Pliocene Masol Formation, Siwalik Frontal Range in northwestern India. Khan and Bera (2016) explain the Occurrence of Persea Mill. from the Siwalik forest of Darjeeling, Eastern Himalaya: Paleoclimatic and Paleogeographic Implications. Gaillar Kundal et al. (2017) gives a Late Pliocene baby Stegodon cf. Stegodon insignis (Proboscidea) from Upper Siwalik of Samba District, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Rana and Rastogi (2017) describe the occurrence and floral details of four new invasive alien species in Uttrakhand, India. Ghosh and Kumar (2017) suggest the evolution of C4 plants and controlling factors from n-alkane isotopic values of northwest Indian Siwalik paleosoles. Vishnu et al. (2017) describe the fossil Asterinaceae in the phyllosphere of the eastern Himalayan Neogene Siwalik forest and their paleoecological significance. Khan et al. (2017) gives evidence for diversification of Calophyllum L. (Calophyllaceae) in the Neogene Siwalik forests of eastern Himalaya.  Parmar et al. (2017) describe the rodent-based age appraisal of the Lower Siwalik Subgroup of Kalaunta, Ramnagar, Jammu, India.

1.22   Distribution, Stratigraphy and Structure

Medlicott (1889) proposed a threefold division of the Siwalik Group into Lower, Middle and Upper. Middlemiss (1889) suggested the term “Nahan Sandstone” for the Lower Siwalik; “Sand Rock Stage” for the Middle Siwalik and “Siwalik Conglomerate” for the Upper Siwalik units.  The stratigraphic contact between the Lower Murree rocks and the overlying Siwalik Group has been interpreted as conformable by Sahni and Mathur (1964) and Chaudhri (1971). Opdyke et al. (1979) correlated age section of the Upper Siwalik Group of Pakistan on the basis of magnetic stratigraphy.  Ojha (2000) described the magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik group at Khutia Khola, for western Nepal. Sangode et al. (2001) attempted the application of magnetic fabric studies in characterizing the ancient fluvial sequence of the Frontal Himalaya. Ulak (2002) described the paleohydrology of the Siwalik group along the Bakiya Khola section, central Nepal Himalaya. Harutaka Sakai et al. (2006) described the Pleistocene rapid uplift of the Himalayan frontal ranges recorded in the Kathmandu and Siwalik basins. Tejpal and Virdi (2007) discussed the tectonic activity classes along the Nahan Thrust (NT) in new sub- Himalaya. Shukla et al. (2009) explain the geomorphic positioning and depositional dynamics of river systems in Lower Siwalik basin, Kumaun Himalaya. Regumi et al. (2011) described the lithostratigraphy and structure of the Siwalik rocks in the southern part of Dang and its surrounding area, southwestern Nepal. Tejpal et al. (2011) described the geomorphic and structural evidences of neotectonic activity in sub- Himalaya belt of the Nahan salient, northwestern India. Kundu et al. (2012) described the depositional environment and provenance of Middle Siwalik sediments in Tista valley, Darjeeling district, Eastern Himalaya, India. Gautam et al. (2012) described the magnetostratigraphic dating of the prime time sedimentary record of Himalayan tectonics and climate: new age constraints (13-10 ma) from the Siwaliks of the Tinau Khola north section, Nepal. Chirouze et al. (2012) described the magnetostratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group in the far eastern Himalaya: Kameng section, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pundita et al. (2014) described the provenance and tectonic settings of the Lower Siwalik Subgroup, Jammu in northwest Himalaya. Singh et al. (2015) described the Tectono-geomorphic and environmental setup deduced during deposition of Mio- Pleistocene sediments in northwestern Himalaya, India. Vassallo et al. explain the distribution of the Late- Quaternary deformation in northwestern Himalaya.  Goswami and Deopa (2015) describe the channel morphology, hydrology and geomorphic positioning of a Middle Miocene river system of the Siwalik foreland basin, India. Singh et al. (2015) explain the tectonic architecture of the Paleogene belt and adjoining lithostratigraphic units in Parwanoo-Subathu sector of the Himachal Himalaya, India. Hussain et al. (2015) explain the Geotechnical investigation of slopes along the National Highway (NH-1D) from Kargil to Leh, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Sao et al. (2015) describe the magnetic polarity of masol 1 locality deposits, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Goswami and Deopa (2015) explain the channel morphology, hydrology and geomorphic positioning of a Middle Miocene river system of the Siwalik foreland basin, India. Luirei et al. (2015) explain the drainage response to active tectonics and evolution of tectonic geomorphology across the Himalayan Frontal Thrust, Kumaun Himalaya. Venkateshwarlu (2015) explain the magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Siwalik sequence in Nurpur area, northwestern Himalaya, India Gargani et al. (2015) explain the geology and geomorphology of masol paleonto-archeological site, Late Pliocene, Chandigarh, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Malasse et al. (2016) explain the intentional cut marks on bovid from the Quranwala zone, 2.6 Ma, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Sao et al. (2016) describe the lithostratigraphy of masol paleonto-archeological localities in the Quranwala zone, 2.6 Ma, Northwestern India. Cautand et al. (2016) explain the Late Miocene-Pleistocene evolution of India-Eurasia convergence partitioning between the Bhutan Himalaya and the Shillong Plateau: New evidences from foreland basin deposits along the Dungsam Chu section, eastern Bhutan. Sao et al. (2016) explain the magnetic polarity of masol 1 Locality deposits, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Mandal and Sarkar (2016) describe the overprint of neotectonism along the course of River Chel, North Bengal, India. Malasse (2016) explain the first Indo-French Prehistorical Mission in Siwaliks and the discovery of anthropic activities at 2.6 million years. Mugnier et al. (2017) explain a complex thrust sequence in western Himalaya: The active Medlicott Wadia Thrust and segmentation of the Himalayan megathrust around the Gorkha earthquake (25 April 2015) in Nepal. Jayangondaperumal et al. (2017) describe the great earthquake surface ruptures along backthrust of the Janauri anticline, NW Himalaya. Kaushal et al. (2017) explain the identification of deformation variability and active structures using geomorphic markers in the Nahan salient, NW Himalaya, India. Luirei et al. (2017) describe the landforms along transverse faults parallel to axial zone of folded mountain front, north-eastern Kumaun Sub-Himalaya, India. Dey et al. (2017) explain the seismic profile analysis of the Kangra and Dehradun re-entrant of NW Himalayan Foreland thrust belt, India which is a new approach to delineate subsurface geometry. Bhakuni et al. (2017) explain the structural analysis of Nalagarh lobe, NW Himalaya: implication of thrusting across tectonic edge of NW limb of Nahan salient, Himachal Pradesh, India and transverse tectonic structural elements across Himalayan mountain front, eastern Arunachal Himalaya, India: Implication of superposed landform development on analysis of neotectonics

1.23 Sedimentology

   A comprehensive sedimentological account of the Lower Siwalik Nahan Formation in the type area Nahan is nearly lacking. The sedimentology of the Siwalik Group was first of all studied by Krynine (1937) since than a number of workers have studied varied sedimentological aspects of the Frontal Siwalik hills. During the past three decades Chaudhri and Gill (1983) carried out clay mineral investigation of the Siwalik sediments in Shimla Hills. Gill (1983, 1984 and 1985) discussed the sedimentology of Siwalik Group in the Frontal Himalaya. Chaudhri (1983) discussed the petrology, provenance and the genesis of the Siwalik sediments exposed in the Nepal. Kumar and Ghosh (1991) described the depositional environment of the Boulder Conglomerate Formation. Critelli and Raymond (1994) worked out the petrology and provenance of the Siwalik sediments of the Pakistan and Nepal. Kumar et al. (1999) discussed the alluvial fans of the Siwalik basin, Suresh et al. (2002) determined the OSL age of the fan deposits from Pinjor-Dun. Kumaravel et al. (2005) determined the sedimentation rate of the Pinjor Formation.  Bhatt et al. (2008) discussed the faces of Siwalik sediments in the Jammu region. Kumaravel et al. (2009) described the major element geochemical variations in a Moicene- Pliocene Siwalik Paleosol sequence: implicationa to soil forming processes in the Himalayan foreland basin. Najman et al. (2009) gives the exhumation history of the Lessar Himalaya, northwestern India, from a multitechnique provenance study of the foreland basin Siwalik Group. Chaudhri (2011) attempted to assess the tectonic character for the terrain in the

F]rontal Siwalik Hills near Trilokpur, the northwestern Himalaya using remote sensing and tectonic morphometric approach. Pundita (2011) discussed the faces evaluation of Boulder conglomerate formation, Upper Siwalik in Jammu region. Chirouze et al. (2012) describe the thermochronology and sediment petrology of the Middle Siwaliks along the Muksar Khola section in eastern Nepal. Chaudhri (2012) discussed the tectonic morphometric studies as a tool for terrain characterization in the Himalayan foothills region.  Chaudhri and Singh (2012) described the clay minerals as climate change indicators in the Pinjor Formation. Jalal and Ghosh (2012) described the provenance of the Late Neogene Siwalik sandstone, Kumaun Himalayan foreland basin: constraints from the metamorphic rock and index of detrital rock fragments. Singh (2012) elucidated the heavy mineral assemblage of the Pinjor Formation of the northwestern Himalaya and its significance in the deciphering the provenance of the sediments in Pinjor. Chaudhri and Singh (2013) worked out the size analysis of the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of Upper Siwalik sediments, northwestern Himalaya, India.  Kassi et al. (2014) described the clay mineral assemblage in the Neogene fluvial succession of the Pishin belt , Pakistan: implications for provenance. Mishra and Chakrapani (2014) gives a grain size model for role of tectonics and climate on sedimentation in Siwalik in Mohand area. Pandita et al. (2014) described the lithofacies association and depositional history of boulder conglomerate formation, Upper Siwalik subgroup, Jammu Himalaya. Sharma and Walia (2015) describe the water quality assessment using physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals of Gobind Sagar Lake, Himachal Pradesh India. Abdessadok et al. (2015) Sedimentological study of major paleonto-archaeological localities of the Late Pliocene Quranwala zone, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Khan and Tiwari (2015) explain the paleocurrents, paleohydraulics, and palaegeography of Miocene-Pliocene Siwalik Foreland Basin of India. Ejeh et al. (2015) describe the heavy minerals and geochemical characteristics of sandstones as indices of provenance and source area tectonics of the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation,Niger Delta Basin. Borah et al. (2015) described the sediment thickness beneath the indo-gangetic plain and Siwalik Himalaya inferred from receiver function modeling. Mir and Jeelani (2015) described the textural characteristics of sediments and weathering in the Jhelum River basin located in Kashmir Valley, Western Himalaya. Maity and Maiti (2016) analyze the sedimentation in connection in grain size and shear stress at lower reach of the Rupnarayan River in West Bengal, India.   Bhattacharya et al. (2016) gives the grain size characterization of instream sand deposition in controlled environment in river Kangsabati in West Bengal. Abdessadok et al. (2016) gives the sedimentological study of major paleonto-archaeological localities of the Late Pliocene Quranwala zone, Siwalik Frontal Range, northwestern India. Zhang et al. (2016) explain the clay mineralogy indicates a mildly warm and humid living environment for the Miocene hominoid from the Zhaotong Basin,Yunnan, China. Tudryn et al. (2016) describe the stratigraphy and paleoenvironment during the Late Pliocene at Masol paleonto-archeological site (Siwalik Range, NW India): Preliminary results. Kafle et al. (2017) consequences of Koshi flood 2008 in terms of sedimentation characteristics and agricultural practices. Gargani  et al. (2016) explain the geology and geomorphology of Masol paleonto-archeological site, Late Pliocene, Chandigarh, Siwalik Frontal Range, NW India. More et al. (2016) explain the palynological approach in the depositional environment of Mio-Pliocene Siwalik sedimentary strata from the Darjeeling Himalayan Foothills, India. Baral et al. (2016) suggest the detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology of the Siwalik Group of the Nepal Himalaya: implications for provenance analysis. Goswami (2016) explain the depositional processes in the distal part of a large alluvial fan’s feeder channel in Himalayan foothills, India. Goswami and Deopa (2017) explain the lithofacies characters and depositional processes of a Middle Miocene Lower Siwalik fluvial system of the Himalayan foreland basin, India. Goswami (2017) explain the depositional processes in the distal part of a large alluvial fan’s feeder channel in Himalayan foothills, India. Kotlia et al. (2017) describe the sedimentary environment and geomorphic development of the uppermost Siwalik molasses in Kumaun Himalayan Foreland Basin, north India. Yasin et al. (2017) explain the sedimentary geology, remote sensing, geomorphology and petrology of Miocene to Late Pliocene sediments in district Sudhunhoti and Poonch, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Taral and Chakraborty (2017) explain the deltaic coastline of the Siwalik (Neogene) foreland basin: evidences from the Gish River section, Darjeeling Himalaya.