Chapter Nine: Political Parties
The democratic status of any country is greatly influenced by the existence of political parties. This is because democracy grants power to the people for them to direct the affairs of the state, and this is where political parties come in because the citizens have a chance to choose who will lead them. Political parties are defined as groups of people who share common interests and work together to form and enact policies. They obtain authority over the government through winning in the elections. The system of party politics was introduced into the United States by national elites who failed to reach a consensus on how power should be divided between the federal and state governments. The current party system which has divided power between Democrats and Republicans had federated by 1860 and has characterized the political atmosphere of the country since that time. Several minor parties have tried to overturn the existing state of partisanship and although they have managed to create an occasional impact in the national political landscape, their efforts have largely been unfruitful (Openstax,2016).
The two-party system that has formed the status quo of the country came into being due to the structure of the U.S. elections. Geographical districts usually have only one seat and this leads to domination by two parties since supporters would not be willing to place their votes on candidates who have fewer chances of winning. The situation is further aggravated by the representative selection process whereby winners attain the seat after obtaining the majority of the votes. This system is known as Plurality voting (also known as first past the post) and does not take into cognizance the vote sharing among candidates (Openstax,2016). Thus, in contesting for a seat in a geographical area, the party which has the largest number of followers has higher chances of winning compared to parties with fewer followers. The attempts made by several minor parties to bring in a different order have been hampered because they have intended to disintegrate the existing party coalitions which are quite strong. This however does not imply that the party system has always been stable; coalitions between parties have been inconsistent and have shifted numerously since their formations within the past two hundred years.
The main function of parties in politics is to aid candidates to win during elections to create and implement policies. Parties usually build a strong supporter base system to increase the number of their voters. This necessitates the existence of a party identification system to determine which party has a huge following from the citizens. The United States has a relatively loose party identification system and this is primarily due to the bottom-up approach used in the structural organization of parties that emerges during election periods. In this approach, the lower levels are responsible for registering voters, mobilization of the voters and potential donors, and recruitment of new members. The lower level is chiefly composed of the precinct and county organizations. The higher levels on the other hand are responsible for formulating the ideologies advocated by the party and election of the major candidates. This is especially seen when a party is in government as they determine the policies which will direct their respective candidates.
A major problem with party politics arises when the opposition party is in control of the legislative houses. This condition is known as the Divided government and is a major cause of party polarization. Polarization here implies the shift of party ideologies from a moderate position to an extreme position. This is because Divided governments make it difficult for parties in the government to implement their policies which leads to internal conflicts that threaten unity in the party. The possible causes include; change in party alliance among voters (sorting) and gerrymandering (favoring of certain candidates through manipulation of legislative districts). Regardless of the cause, it is evident that polarization has impacted national politics negatively
Chapter Ten: Interest Groups and Lobbying
Interest groups are defined as any group of people or organizations that have formally associated to influence the government concerning the formulation of public policy. This influence is often exerted through the instrumentality of a lobbyist or a lobbying group. A lobbyist is an individual responsible for representing an interest organization before the government, usually receiving compensation for the services he or she offers. The lobbyist is expected to register with the government (whether it is the state or federal) and his or her main task is to influence the decision-making process. Their interests may be singular or represent a broad range of issues. Some of these interest groups represent corporate organizations, businesses, and even governments. These groups strive to represent either public or private interests; private interests usually seek particular benefits that are not well distributed within the society such as advantages that are accrued to the affluent class of the society. On the other hand, public interests strive to represent a broader field and if possible, everyone in the community (Openstax,2016).
One of the challenges which Interest groups have to struggle with is the dissuasion to participation among members especially when individuals recognize that their membership does not offer any significant value to the group. Individuals are usually willing to be part of a group when they know that they will enjoy the benefits without having to exert a great effort on their part. But when they are called upon to participate extensively, then they shrink back from such consequences. To address such challenges within an interest group, the leaders may resort to provide certain incentives to the group participants and potential members which will help them to become more active. Interest groups that are well-organized, financially stable and small in their membership are usually in a better position to overcome such problems in comparison to other groups that are disorganized and too huge in their membership. Other factors that help in mobilization of interest groups include political upheavals, economic disturbances, and social crises.
Interest groups offer a chance for individuals to participate more fully in civic matters. One of the great determiners of group membership is the prevailing social and economic conditions. The tough economic times have led to a rise in the number of lobbying groups with different varieties both in the public and private domains with interests in technological advances, industrial specialization and interest fragmentation (Openstax,2016). The success of a lobbying group in being able to influence legislation is dependent upon two major factors; their access to economic resources and the contemporary political environment in the country. The economic advantage will give them a vantage ground in reaching men within the higher social class and the political atmosphere is a key determinant on whether they shall be given consideration or not.
Some of the ways used by interest groups to gain influence include the support of certain election candidates with the hope that they will advance the ideas of the interest group when they enter into the legislative offices. Lawmakers rely heavily on lobbyists for vital information concerning policy recommendations and the general perception of their respective constituents. Since interest groups and lobbyists are such a powerful tool in the community, there is a need for strong restrictions to control their level of operations. This is done through their registration under the federal government, a prohibition from non-compliance with the law, and a requirement to reveal their lobbying activities to the relevant authorities.
Chapter Eleven: Congress
The constitution that governs the United States has laid out a strong bicameral legislature composed of the Senate and a House of Representatives, these two chambers help to ensure that the needs of the common citizen and the state are all taken into cognizance. The Senate takes in two members from each state which leads to a total of one hundred members from fifty states. On the other hand, the House of Representatives receives members according to the populational level of each state and is currently composed of 435 delegates (Openstax,2016). The congress has been vested with three types of powers from the constitution; First is the enumerated powers which have been specifically outlined in the constitutional text. Second is the implied powers which have not been explicitly addressed in the constitution but are used as inferences vital for the attainment of national objectives. The third is the inherent powers that are assumed by the houses on the premise that the country is in existence. The power used by the Congress in regulating commerce between and within states has been significantly high while its control of the foreign policies has been noted to diminish throughout the past century.
The election of members into the House of Representatives is largely dependent on the public desires due to the closeness that exists between the House and its constituents. In contrast to this condition, the Senate is distanced from the public demands and this gives the senators a better chance of serving without bias or influence from the citizens. During re-elections, the incumbents seem to enjoy support from their parties and the easiness of obtaining campaign funds. This has led incumbents to remain in office more easily than the upcoming politicians. There are three main models of representation used by representatives to serve their people. First is the delegate model whereby the representatives are expected to simply be a mouthpiece of the people in voicing out their wishes and demands. Secondly is the trustee model, whereby the representative’s act according to what they deem to be of the best interest to those whom they represent, in this case, they are prone to make decisions on behalf of the constituent which they represent. The third is an amalgam of the two models which is applied according to the situational demands. Various members take different models but most of them prefer to use the third model which combines the delegate and trustee roles.
Regarding the organization of the chamber, the House Leader is usually the Speaker who is also the majority party leader. The Senate leader is simply referred to as the majority leader. The leadership from the majority is mostly responsible for controlling legislative committees that draft, amend, and prepare the legislature before it is tabled to the floor. The minority parties also have leaders who assist in enaction of the party strategies. The legislative process is usually a classic process that requires both chambers; the House and the Senate to agree on a piece of the legislature before it becomes law. This method relied on the use of committees that were responsible for introducing the bill to the house where it could be debated and voted on accordingly. However, recent legislations have used a different approach as representatives have embraced the budgeting process which has bolstered the leadership and deterred the operations of the committees.
Chapter Twelve; The Presidency
The process of electing presidents in the United States has evolved so much since the inception of the office until right now presidential elections are held every four years. The evolution has been spurred by the need to correct the complicated election process formulated by the framers of the constitution. It is noteworthy to state that the constitution did not have room for political parties and presidents were generally chosen through conventions but as time passed by, the primary voting enabled the citizens to be directly involved in the selection process. The transition into the presidency is a cumbersome task that requires efficiency within a limited period. The new president should get acquainted with the powers of the office together with its limitations. There is also a need to appoint cabinet secretaries and to ensure that other vacant posts in the complex governmental structure have been filled; with approval from the senate. The president must also ensure that his political agenda is well defined and be ready to address any unexpected issue that may suddenly arise.
The U.S constitution has greatly curbed the powers of the President leaving the President with limited authority. The outstanding feature of the President’s authority is the ability to address the nation using one voice. The advances in technological lines have made it easy for Presidents to push their agendas more forcibly using the presidency as their platform. President Theodore Roosevelt referred to this practice as a bully pulpit (Openstax,2016). The first ladies have also gotten a chance to appear before the public whereby some of the notable names include; Eleanor Roosevelt and Lady Bird Johnson. These women played a great role in extending the dimensions of power held by the First Lady, despite the publicity directed towards the First Lady’s role, those women who ventured to perform unconventional roles received a backlash of criticism from the society.
While it is true that the president is left with limited authority after being checked by the congress, it is nonetheless essential to highlight the powers of the president. A president has the power to offer pardon to criminals convicted of federal offenses and can also issue executive without gaining approval from the senate. These executive orders will however be temporary in their bearing as they do not possess the permanence of legislation passed by the Congress. Regarding matters of foreign policy, the President can use the executive agreement powers to reach a consensus with other nations. This is a much easier mode of negotiation in comparison with treaties that require approval from the senate and are also narrow in their scope. The President can also utilize the office to push for particular policies and influence the general public opinion. This will however require much tact and suitability of the political conditions for the forwarding of such policies. These conditions include; control of the party, emergence of a crisis such as pandemics and wars, or a decline in the economy. Despite the efficacy of such conditions, history is replete with lessons from previous presidents who were unable to advance their policies under the most favorable conditions.
Bibliography
OpenStax (2016) American Government Retrieved from <https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11995/1.15>