The Pains of Imprisonment
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The Pains of Imprisonment
Most wrongdoers or criminals usually are sent to prison behind bars as a way of punishments of the crimes committed or paying for the crimes they had committed. Imprisonments are also meant to rehabilitate the criminals and to incapacitate them from committing futures crimes which will affect the society in one way or another. Many prisons are set up by the federal government to keep away the criminals or other wrongdoers away from the community after the criminals are guilty of their acts by the court of law. The prisons, however, are not favourable in terms of conditions since the criminals are being punished and most of the freedom are reprieved.
Prison system can do its duties and responsibilities to make sure the criminals during their serving period they get to be corrected and punished as well. Life at the prison is a whole new world to most of the prisoners since the environment is unique. In terms of conduciveness, the atmosphere is regarded to be not conducive it is harsh to the prisoners who will lead to the pains of imprisonment that most of the inmates undergo (Listwan et al., 2013). Prisoners are guarded by wardens who are managed by the prison system, and it’s the warden who ensures that the prisoners behave and are acting ethically in their process of correction and punishments.
The prisons will challenge most of the prisoners, making them suffers since they are being treated as criminals who are under punishment. The process of them adapting to the prison system causes so much pain to the prisoners, which is either caused psychologically or physically when they are serving their prison sentence. The sufferings of imprisonment cause mental torture to the prisoners since they are not used to such treatment on daily basis (Bronson et al. .2017) Exposure to harsh conditions brings pain mentally challenging the prisoners regardless of the crime.
There are several types of pains which most prisoners undergo. The pains depend on what the prisoner has been going through since many challenges or problems faced by most prisoners (Haney, 2017). The pains may cause sickness or mental, psychological problem depending on the type. Because of the pains, some of the prisoners decide to do unmentionable acts. Suicide is one of the most committed acts caused by the sufferings of imprisonment.
The document will look into mainly the pains prisoners undergo while at the prison. The types of illnesses are being analyzed. Since for one to go through pains of imprisonment, they are required to be in prison caused by a criminal or unlawful effect. What is causing the pain and how to overcome are featured in the document since its part of the pain of imprisonment. Current issues of pains of imprisonment will overlook how the trends on the subject. Surviving the prison sentence pain in prison is a problem challenged by most prisoners which can lead to mental, psychological issues.
Causes of Imprisonment
For one to imprisoned the person must have committed an unlawful act which will lead to his or her arrest by the law enforcement or federal government. Justice is always meant to prevail for the party, which was offended to get just treatment. When one is arrested for being a criminal going through the court system to prove if the person is guilty or not, it is always recommended. This is to prevent any case of wrongful sentence since some cases are plotted to render a verdict on an innocent group of people.
The judicial system always s critically analyzes the case as it looks into it that the person who committed the criminal offence will serve the deserved period in prison to prevent unfair sentence (van Zyl Smit & Appleton, 2016). Based on statistics in criminal court, the most held up criminals are thieves who are sentenced to stealing. There are many other criminal offences such as domestic violence, rape, assault, illegal businesses and drugs, murder and fraud. All of the stated criminal offences have been a cause of imprisonment since when guilty, the offender will be sent to prison.
Of all the offences, the sentenced served to depend on the type of criminal offence since not all offences will serve the same time in prison. The extent of the crime is a determiner of the decision made by the jury, seen through by the evidence witnesses lawyers and defendant. Confidence in the correctness of the decision is an essential key factor which is considered before rendering a verdict. When one is sentenced, therefore, he will go to the prison which in some countries also depends since some prisons are solely meant for specific wrongdoers.
There are different types of prisons where prisoners are placed. Correction facilities are placed per level of security topmost being maximum security. There are state prisons, federal prisons, juvenile detention and also private correctional institutions. All of the mentioned correctional facilities offer the same services but depends on the type of offenders. For example, state prisons are meant for offenders who have committed crimes against the state such as fraud or robbery, which is based van Zyl Smit & Appleton (2019) remarks. The type of prison will also determine the types of pains of imprisonment a person will undergo since not all types of prisons render services which are offered in other jails.
Since most of the prisoners are guilty and deserve their sentence, they always not expect the prison life to challenge them since being sentenced to prison is an act of punishment but also with a sense of mercy. Change of events for the prisoners since they are undergoing mental torture from being kept away from the rest of society and their freedom being taken away makes them change a lot. An average human being when denied or some of their independence and rights or when isolated unwillingly will suffer being that they are not used to such unfavourable environment.
Pains of Imprisonment
Prisons were introduced to keep wrongdoers away from society since they acted as a threat to society. Being innovated by humanity during the early stages of life as a mode of punishment, it led to a god decline in criminal activities. An excellent way to show mercy to offenders and give them a second chance is by taking them to prison since they had been given a free opportunity to change their ways and become good people. Prisons were meant to torture the criminal offenders psychologically to make them regret the mistake they committed and change their ways as pointed out by Listwan et al. (2013). A psychiatrist from the old times studied about the mental impact prisons had on criminals and founded that it changed their mental states.
Civilization later caused to a better state of prisons since the conditions of most old prisons were so harsh and not recommendable. Culture played a crucial role in improving the lives of criminal of criminals who were serving their period. The former prisons were much harsh therefore nearly all prisoners unless for those who were mentally unfit were undergoing severe pains which resulted in many mental changes for the inmates who were serving their sentences (Sykes, 1958). Some were able to think of escaping plans which were risky but successful. Not all were not able to go through the prison security and seek hiding as a fugitive to not come back to the prison. Most were unsuccessful, and they served long periods.
Some of the main types of pains caused by the prison system are loss of liberty, desirable goods and services, heterosexual relationships, autonomy and security. These are the main fundamental pains which prisoners undergo caused by imprisonment. Listwan et al., (2013) state that the pains are characterized daily by what the prisoners encountered; therefore, being a significant challenge to most of them. A study was conducted to know what the prisoners are undergoing by the deprivation of their freedom and undergoing punishment which is something they are not used to. Prison life was undesirable for all prisoners being that life was harsh. Criminal offenders who had served an extended period at the prison ended up being hardcore by being used to the hard life and the undesirable conditions.
- Deprivation of heterosexual relationships
Prisoners being kept away from their wives and their conjugal rights they seek to compensate from the reliable source of pleasure which is close to them. Since engaging in sexual activities is something every adult would enjoy but for them, it is deprived, and they need, they will use their fellow men to at least have a close partner who they can depend on (Sykes, 1958). This will lead to many homosexual relationships since some cannot withstand until they finish their prison sentence as for some, they are life imprisoned due to their type of crime they are committed. However, much people engaging in the standards of the relationship were having their wife or husband, the prison has made them use male as their sexual counterparts.
Statistics show that even though not all prisoners, male or female are into a homosexual relationship. Some have undergone sexual abuse which is from the same gender since the criminal offenders are not afraid of engaging further in malicious acts such as homosexual sexual abuse. Homosexual sexual abuse is also another cause of pain for inmates since they are undergoing mental torture of being misused by their fellow inmates because of ill thoughts. Suicide is overseen by most of the prisoners who were abused in such a way (Haney, 2017). The prison system can not do much for people who are behind these other than extending their sentence which does not bother the offender in one way or the other because most those who commit such malicious acts are serving life imprisonment.
For some, they have decided to be officially gay for a sexual purpose which is a form of pain being experienced because of imprisonment. Based on Sykes (1958) latent homosexual tendencies are common since there is a lack of heterosexual relations where one can get the right conjugal rights which are deserved. Most prisons don’t offer conjugal visits, which will help the prisoners to maintain their correct form of sexuality. This will lead to serious mental problems which will further lead to pains for the prisoners, and they will not easily overcome unless they get the required assistance required. Prison administrators have noted the increase in heterosexual relations, but they see it as part of changing for detained prisoners since they are deprived of their freedom and rights.
- Deprivation of Autonomy
Prisoners, when detained, most of them lose their sense of freedom because of their prison experiences which makes them act childishly since they are not capable of making their own decisions. Sykes (1958) points out that prison inmates are reduced to the low living part of the society whose opinions never matter and are cannot stand on their actions since they cannot decide anything in the prison world. Prison being punished for the wrong decisions they made; they have deprived off their autonomy which is a crucial part for the human adult who needs lead their actions (Haney, 2017). Deprivation of independence is taking away one of the fundamentals rights given to every human being but not for criminal offenders who had wronged.
Self-governance, when taken away from the prisoners, causes most of the pain since they feel they are being undermined and are held irrelevant to their actions. As inmates are given a broader range of potential activities and power to make decisions, they are also held responsible for failures to live up to the standards of rehabilitation interventions like deeply intrusive cognitive-behavioural programs. Taking away the right of making one’s own decision has been found to influence most of the prisoners, and it’s also one of the lead causes of making the prisoners plan an escape which will get them a free and enjoy one of the most fundamental rights.
At the prison, the inmates are being controlled from morning to evening being moved from one activity to another. Some of the jails follow strict orders where the prisoners are not given any chance of enjoying any chance of even doing anything since they are serving maximum punishments. According to Bronson et al., (2017), this has been found to psychologically torture the prisoners since it’s the first time of their lives getting deprived of their autonomy. Significant pain is caused that can only be known after a good psychiatrist session with the prisoner to understand the mental extent the deprivation has caused.
- Deprivation of Liberty
The way prison is built, and it is being managed to fundamentally deprive one’s liberty since it restricting many of the rights of the prisoners and the freedom. The prisoners’ rights and liberties were being confined or limited since they are only operating within heavily secured walls and being monitored at any free time. Most of the time, the prisoners are locked in their cells, preventing their engagements with their fellow inmates, among many other rights they can enjoy (Sykes, 1958). Incapacitation being one of the main reasons why most criminal offenders are being sentenced to prison, takes away the liberty of the offenders.
Loss of liberty has effects on anyone who will encounter such a situation. Prisoners being some of the people whose freedom is taken away and their bonds to their loved ones are taken away since they can only see them at a limited time, or they can only to get letters. Some of the offenders, even their families or friends, abandoned them (Listwan et al., 2013). This causes so much pain and grief for the prisoners since they are not attached or close to their loved one anymore. Since their liberty is taken away and all they can get is maybe a visit after long periods or letters which will leave them desiring their initial state of freedom.
Being that ties to the outside world of the inmate are cut short for the period, they are at the prisons the prisoners feel that they are being treated harshly. Still, however its part of their punishments since taking away their liberty will act as a point of correction preventing them from carrying out any mistakes. When they think of returning to prison and being deprived of their freedom, they will not engage in any criminal offence that may lead them to jail and jeopardize their liberty and freedom. Some of the prisons may offer some right while some take away all of the freedom and latitude of the prisoner not giving back even a small bit.
- Deprivation of Good and Services
According to Sykes (1958), there are two factors which determine deprivation of goods and services one being the standard of living and the other being penal austerity. Penal austerity means an instance where offender living standards are reduced as a punishment prescribed under the legal system, meaning it’s an act supported by law as pointed out by Haney (2017). Penal austerity and standard of living when used by a prison system to make prisoners undergo their rightful punishment, the prisoners will be experiencing much pain since that is an essential secondary need. When taken away, it affects most of the prisoners who were living desirable lives that they hoped for when they were undergoing their sentence. Most inmates are living under poor living standards, and there are under harsh penal austerity.
Even though the prison system is offering the basic needs of most prisoners to the prison inmates, the standard of living is not recommended to an average human being since it is not desirable. Poor sleeping conditions, the food being served or offered at the prison as well as social amenities such as toilet when are poor they make the prisoners suffer (Robert, 2014). This will make them feel much pain since they were not used to such poor conditions which are being offered by the prison system. Still, since they are criminal offenders who are experiencing their criminal sentence, they will just withhold and persevere through the awkward moments, but it pains them most as inmates.
For the prisoners exposed to such poor conditions may get on well with the poor conditions which are there at the prison. Sykes claims that homeless, poor and other offenders who were suffering tend to survive and be well, therefore not going through any form of pain since such an environment has been their habitat. The correction facility does not anyway offer some of the services may be health services only which makes inmates miss other services which they were once getting at appoint of their lives. Recreational facilities, for instance, which is not offered at prisons is one of the primary lost types of service which most of the inmate wish for. Still, since they are deprived of some assistance, they will get to suffer and experience pain.
Products such as alcohol, tobacco, furniture and junky foods are some of the products which most of the inmate slack and will cause pain and regret for their days at the prison since they were once entitled to (Sykes et al. 2019). Penal austerity will also be reduced since the prison system may lack the funds to ensure that the standard living conditions of the prisoners are met and considered. Most of the prisons usually are populated, and therefore penal austerity will be regarded as since the prison system is also not meant to be favourable. For prison systems in Norwich or Sweden, they have been found to reconsider their prisoners and offer them some of the products and services since the government is capable of offering. Prisoners in Norwich and countries alike tend not to suffer much since they get to enjoy a bit of their freedom and rights.
- Deprivation of Security
Prison being a place meant for criminal offenders who have been rendered guilty after the judicial process; most of the criminal offenders tend to be dangerous to even their fellow criminal offenders. Sykes (1958) asserts that, due to the dangers posed by the notorious criminal offenders, prisons are therefore regarded as one of the unsafe places. Imprisonment is considered to be hazardous since it is one of the most violent places where other crimes are being also committed; however much it is a correction facility. The need of security by most criminal offenders make most the offenders who have been hurt by any form of prison crime experience pain which they cannot open up to anyone since the prison system can’t do much to help.
Some of the most committed prison crimes are homosexual rape within the prisons which is one of the most common in most prisons in the world followed by violence which is seriously leading to severe injuries and substance abuse. Most of the weak and less vulnerable prisoners who cannot fight for themselves are the ones who always suffer from prison crimes since the violence and rape are targeting them among other types of abuse. They are still defenceless and are used much by the bullies who make them undergo severe suffering and pain. The helpless and weak inmates are not protected directly by the prison wardens since the ratio is making it not possible. After the powerless and vulnerable are abused or tortured, they always undergo severe mental problems since they are suffering, and they need peace. This acts as a g source pain for the prisoners who are exposed to such treatment.
Sexual victimization being the most dormant problem faced, the prisoners are always feeling insecure since they don’t know the day they may be attacked. This makes most of the prisoners suffer from panic attacks from the phobia of being attacked and get abused sexually by their fellow inmate. Prisons have tried to counter the sexual victimization problem, but since most of the jails are crowded and populated, it is hard to contain the problem. For the victims who have been molested, they always undergo psychological problem based on what they experienced (Bronson et al. 2017). The traumas keep disturbing the victims, making them experience pain caused by getting imprisonment. Psychiatrist services are also not offered to most prisons; therefore leaving most of the victims suffer from torture inflicted by the sexual abuse.
Most of the inmates have rude behaviours; therefore, violent will be one of the problems since they will be regularly in disagreement leading to fights between the criminal offenders. The practice is attributed to by the stressors and the deficiencies which is experienced by the criminal offenders while they are serving their sentence as claimed by van Zyl Smit, D & Appleton (2016). Management of the correction facilities being not sufficient enough to prevent the violent actions which may lead to even untimely death of some of the inmates it also causes severe discomfort. Security of the prison has failed in ensuring that the prison system is secure; therefore, no form of violence.
Effects of pains caused by imprisonment
Pains caused by imprisonment has several consequences since the pain often result in something being that the affected persons will do something to try take away the pain or as a form of vengeance. The anger coming from the pain will always result in something and therefore, when considered one will able to notice how such ill actions can cause much detrimental loss. Being that many people are suffering from the pain caused by the stated deprivations, prisoners may act in groups or individually to fight back if, by any chance, they get tired of being pushed by the denial.
In some cases, the pains which prisoners are enduring might cause a revolt since the majority of the prisoners are feeling too much oppressed by the harsh conditions they are all undergoing through their sentence. The pain makes them feel they deserve better, but still, their freedom ca be kept away from them. Revolt is caused by poor living conditions or when the penal austerity is too much on the inmates; therefore, the need to revolt since it has caused much pain (Robert, 2014). Most of the revolutions which have been considered by the prison management has resulted in a reduction in cases of mental, psychological problems which were instigated by pain. Unsuccessful revolts also lead to harsher treatments since the prison management try to act back harder as a way of finishing up the feuds caused by too much pain.
Suicide is also one significant effect which, as a result of being exposed to conditions at the prisons due to pains caused by imprisonment. Since most of the suffering experienced at prisons are causing much pain, and one does not have the hope of regaining the same state as before, the prisoners get the urge to kill himself or herself since they see life meaningless. Based on the treatment a prisoner receives while in prison, it tortures the inmate mentally causing depression and stress, which can convince the convict to take his life to end the suffering which is experiencing.
Psychological problems such as paranoia, claustrophobia, depression, insomnia and trauma are also effects of the pains of imprisonment. Since prison is meant to make, one suffer psychologically based on the experiences which are intended to correct the person, when the skills get extreme causing the pains of imprisonment, the mental state of the prisoner are altered. The prisoner suffers depending on the experience (Robert, 2014). The psychological problems always result in pains caused by the torture the prisoners are enduring while they are serving their terms at the prison. For the prisoners to regain their initial or normal mental state, they are required to undergo counselling session and kept under a bit favourable environment which will help them heal and restore their initial mental state.
Substance abuse is also common to prisoners who have suffered and undergoing pain inflicted by imprisonment. Drugs are usually illegally smuggled to the prison system and used by the inmates who are mostly drugs addicts. These drugs are also accessible for other inmates who are suffering and need the drugs as an intermediate to help them fight their inner demons such as pains; they are enduring. Van Zyl Smit, D & Appleton (2016) points out that prisoners who are going through tuff moments because of the conditions and other issues of pains of imprisonment seek the drugs to help them fight what they are going through. Most of these inmates will later end up as drugs addicts as well due to the frequent use. Substance abuse is common among many inmates who are enduring pain, therefore, showing how it is an effect of pains caused by imprisonment.
Emotional withdrawal and social withdrawal by the prison inmates who are having pain is an effect connected to imprisonment. The retreat is meant to help inmates counter his or her problems personally, and it is a way to show that they are suffering from panic and paranoia. This makes them isolate by themselves since they fear the masses based on what they have been done by fellow inmates (Robert, 2014). The isolation is also a form of showing that the experiences are causing much pain and suffering. Statistics show that most inmates who are isolated, the majority of them are suffering from pain which is from what has happened for them during their life experience at the prison since it is mentally disturbing them.
The pain of imprisonment has caused most of the inmates to plan escapes to go away from what they are experiencing at the prison since they are enduring much pain and suffering, therefore, escaping the prison will help in making them get relieved from what they are undergoing. Most of the jails which treat the inmates harshly have faced escape attempts since most of the inmates feel they deserve better which they can get in pursuit either outside of the prison systems where they can be treated better as they deserve. Escape attempt will, therefore, be an effect of pain caused by imprisonment meant, which is a challenge faced by most prisoners.
How Prisoners Can Survive through Pains of Imprisonment
The pain caused by imprisonment can be done away with if the prison management offers help to the prisoners who are majorly affected and they may seem off the radar as claimed by Reis et al., (2019). When given the required attention by the prison system management, the prison inmates can be helped in overcoming this challenging which they are commonly facing (Sykes, 1958). The problem, when considered, may help in making the prison productive since most of the prisoners are usually engaged in skilled labour. Their maximum participation is required and will be of help to most of the inmates since they are already undergoing most of their terrible moments in their life.
Reis et al., (2019) asserts that prison management should be offering facilities which should ensure that however much freedom and liberty are deprived but at least the criminal offenders are being treated the right way while serving their sentence. Excellent security with random patrol to ensure that nothing sneaky is happening during the free time f the prisoners will reduce the cases of insecurity which has been a common issue to the inmates since its one of the causes of pain (Robert, 2014). When suitable, efficient and reliable security is being offered to most of the prison warden, cases of illness in prisons will reduce and make the criminal offenders incapacitate correctly since their head will be more precise.
Most of the prisons only offer health services but don’t consider the mental health of the prison inmates. The mental health of the prison inmates is a crucial aspect to be considered for the patients to be able to undergo the appropriate correction, as the way is supposed that may result in something productive since that is one of the main reason of the criminal offenders is sent to prison. Based on Fazel et al., (2016), psychiatrist services are crucial in areas such as prisons since most of the pain inflicted by the jail will result in significant psychological problems. This makes it necessary since the criminal offenders who are enduring the pain can be helped through and make it through the pain they are suffering from since the psychiatrist services will help in gaining their original mental states (Reis et al. 2019). When prison management offering such services, suicide also will reduce being that inmates undergoing mental torture will get the help they require.
Proper and efficient screening and checking of the inmates and prison staff to ensure no drugs are smuggled will act as a way of helping through the situation. Chances of smuggling in drugs will be minimized and be dismantled since the drugs will be confiscated, and the users will undergo rehabilitation. According to Robert (2014), to fight the war on substance, abuse the prison will to turned upside down to get and keep away the drugs helping the prisoners who are using it to fight their pain based on what they had experienced. The prisoners who are abusing drugs will, therefore, use another alternative way to help them in becoming normal as they fight their pain.
Therapy sessions which are to be held in groups will also help the victims of the pains of imprisonment being that they will get to work together in helping repair the ones who are broken. This will help the victims by making them not self-isolate and think of any ill thoughts such as suicide as well as preventing them from starting substance abuse as pointed out by Robert (2014). The forums can also help in raising awareness to come up with better ways of preventing many of the reasons why most of the inmates undergo pain and suffering. Through the forum, the inmates can help to stop sexual abuse acts as well as enhancing security and prevent any form of substance abuse which are some of the leading causes of mental torture which will make the prisoners endure pain.
In some prisons, the prison management has put up guidelines which are in favour with the inmates. Inmates in such correction faculties are given certain privileges such as weekly visits and calls as well as right living conditions. Such conditions are not much harsh, but still, some of the liberty is deprived. Being that not all is taken away the criminal offenders serving their periods don’t feel much pain since some of the causes of the pain such as deprival of liberty and goods and services are not much strict but a bit lenient reducing the pressure applied on criminal offenders( Fazel et al., 2016). Favourable conditions will help the prisoners go through their painful moments quickly and overcome it.
Current Issues
However, much prison was meant for criminal offenders or wrongdoers. The prisons are facing influence by the regular ordinary citizens. Most citizens take an active role in making the prisons a better place since the convicts have imprisoned area also a human who requires fair treatment irrespective of the criminal offence committed or the situation. Mental health, populations, drugs and security are some of the common issues being touched since they are adversely affecting most prisons found anywhere
Security has been a current trend on some of the prisons which are operating since for the inmates to be at peace by themselves being that law enforcers are there to provide efficient and enough security (Robert, 2014). Some prisons are affected by the shortage of prison warden, which result in significant problems affecting the operation of a prison. As asserted by Haney (2017), weak prisons that inmates outnumber the warden, tend to face more attacks and face more rebellions since the prisoners, therefore, making a prison to be generally guarded to manage. It is a current issue because most prisons are outnumbered.
Advancement in technology is the current issue which is being used in monitoring the prison system as well as ensuring its safety. Screening and CCTV camera are being used respectively to check over the inmates and see if they obtain any illegal objects which are meant to be smuggled. Technology has played a crucial role in ensuring that the prison system is updated in even files management which is quite helpful.
Mental Health, on the other hand, has been an issue since prisons tend to affect the prisoners psychologically than physically, which is asserted by Fazel et al., (2016). It has been the current issue since most of the correctional facilities have many cases on mental health. Most of the prisons are coming up with a mental health department to help inmates who are suffering from any kind of psychological problems. Since the imprisonment is the cause of mental health problem, it has been of the right order to help the prisoners to make them at least get better will they serve their prison sentence.
Conclusion
Surviving the prison sentence pain of imprisonment is a problem challenged by most prisoners which can lead to mental, psychological issues. Detention is a result of a criminal activity done by criminal offenders after they get arrested and get to be arraigned in court where they are convicted guilty. The court system usually goes through a long process of the court hearing to render to a fair verdict. After being convicted, most of the criminals are sent do different correction institution which is meant to incapacitate, rehabilitate and also punish the wrongdoers or the criminal offenders.
While most of the prisoners are serving their terms, they undergo problems which will result in them undergo pain and suffering due to the harsh conditions which are being endured by most of them. Some of the highlighted types of illnesses are deprival of security, products, services, liberty, autonomy and heterosexual relationships. The problems have caused so much agony to most of the prisoners since they are in a new environment which they are not used.
The pains have side effects which are as a result of the suffering. The pains may lead to most of the prisoners planning a revolt as well as escaping among other outlined impacts of pain. Since most the problems result in significant mental torture, the government get to help the prisoners through the prison system by offering mental health services. This is in line with other current issues which is in line with prison pains and the policy.
Reference
Bronson, J., & Berzofsky, M. (2017). Indicators of mental health problems reported by prisoners and jail inmates, 2011–12. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Fazel, S., Hayes, A. J., Bartellas, K., Clerici, M., & Trestman, R. (2016). Mental health of prisoners: prevalence, adverse outcomes, and interventions. The Lancet Psychiatry.
Haney, C. (2017). “Madness” and penal confinement: Some observations on mental illness and prison pain. Punishment & Society.
Listwan, S. J., Sullivan, C. J., Agnew, R., Cullen, F. T., & Colvin, M. (2013). The pains of imprisonment revisited: The impact of strain on inmate recidivism. Justice Quarterly.
Robert Worley 13 March 2014. The Pains of Imprisonment. [YouTube Video] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhJIuzBjaeY
Reis, M., Dinelli, S., & Elias, L. (2019). Surviving prison: Using the Power Threat Meaning Framework to explore the impact of long-term imprisonment.
Sykes, G. (1958). The pains of imprisonment. The society of captives: A study of a maximum security prison.
van Zyl Smit, D., & Appleton, C. (Eds.). (2016). Life imprisonment and human rights. Bloomsbury Publishing.