Part I:
Acheulean tool industry
Consisted of tools made from stone with excellent fracture traits, involving chalcedony, flint, and jasper; in areas that did not have these, quartize will be utilized. The Homo erectus made the Acheulean stone tools. They are found over the largest region and have been the industry that has run for a very long time lasting more than a million years.
Radiocarbon dating
It is a scientific method that gives fair age approximation for materials based on carbon, and that came from living organisms. Age can be approximated by measuring the quantity of carbon-14 present in a living organism compared to the universal reference standard. The radiocarbon dating technique has had a significant impact on modern man. It has revolutionized the understanding of man not only on the present but also of incidents that took place thousands of years ago.
Tribal system
It is a speculative kind of human social organization established from a set of smaller groups that have short-term or long-term political integration and characterized by customs of common ancestry, language, and culture.
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is an area that gives knowledge and material about the long-time past of humans. The main concern of archaeologists is to unveil the activities of human beings and nature that have developed evidence of their cultural history. Such proof might consist of any remains of human habitation, which is alluded to as the archaeological record. The procedure that generates this proof refers to formation processes.
Part II
Chiefdoms are made of political organization distinguished by social hierarchies and integration of political authority into full-time experts who regulate production and dissemination of resources. At times the status of the chief and his or her family is higher. The chief is like a ‘big’ man on steroids; they relied on their persuasive skills. They had more power in the distribution of resources. They were spiritual leaders who proved their right to lead. They settled conflicts among their subjects; however, at times, they could not implement their decisions. Succession came from the family line, a thing that contributed to the establishment of a hierarchical society.
In “Do Native Peoples Today Invent Their Traditions?”, Keesing stresses the distinctions between the precolonial period, the era of colonization, and the post-colonization epoch in the Pacific. The scholar emphasizes distinctive views of the self, customs, and traditions among people of the Pacific. He explores the political mythmaking of modern-day Melanesia, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, where the talk of tradition is most grounded inside the Pacific postcolonial state (pg. 353, 356). Rivalry for state assets and political authority lead to regional separatism and secessionist requests. Thus, individuals develop customary standards that are attractive to common cultural heritage. Moreover, the area’s traditions and customs focus on settling the inconsistencies among the ancestral ways and Christianity. On the other hand, Trask focuses on criticizing Keesing statements.
According to Keesing, individuals from Malaita developed the myth that supports the tribe to ancestors and systematizes the customary rules to separate themselves from Christians (pg. 356). The present people of Melanesia have paramount chiefs and traditional leaders that are stronger and have more authority compared to the precolonial era. Different from the past, native individuals have a chiefly system and inherited rank in the current era. Political battles over Christianity and outsider laws render the pagan Kwaio individuals from central Malaita to progress their customs to the ideological level. To recover their past, native individuals have to build new senses and traditions. However, Trask is not in favor of Keesing statements and states they are based on white superiority and academic colonialism (pg. 353). Trask does not consent that the focus of the new traditions is on political mythmaking and opposing Christianity. Trask’s primary argument is that the direction of Hawaiian is that they live in the present, while no one knows the future, and the past is full of glory and information.
Part III
The purpose of the survey as an archaeological method is to look for archaeological sites, gather information, and organize past cultures. On the other hand, evacuation methods entail removing soil, sediments, and rocks covering the artifacts or evidence of human activity. Both ways help in finding evidence that teaches about the past, but at the same time, they are destructive processes.
In 1997, James Chatter started a firestorm at the time he characterized the earliest skeletons discovered in North America as “Caucasoid-like” (pg. 117). This was given a necessary evaluation of what came to be known as Kennewick Man. He provides a progressively intensive investigation and a significantly more careful examination of this similar skeleton, discovering that these remaining parts are not the same with any skeletons from Native Americans. He presumes that the more than 8000-year-old Kennewick skeleton, along with a few other early skeletons, demonstrates that North America’s settlement was not only by the Asian populace. It was also substantially more mind-boggling pattern of in-migration from a different population than presumed by several archaeologists and biological anthropologists.
On the other hand, Michelle Hamilton opposes the original depiction of the Kennewick skull as “Caucasoid” by Chatters. She asserts that Chatters and others have afterward moved in the opposite direction from this depiction for another model they call the “Paleoamerican Paradigm” (pg. 133). She affirms that this new viewpoint means that the progenitors of present-day Native Americans are not the first settlers of the continent, much as in the initial evaluation by Chatters. After taking everything into account, the assessment of the Kennewick skull and reaction of Native Americans to the whole controversy, she reasons that the grating approach by Chatters and his partners have raised tensions among archaeologists and Indians like no other incident in the past two decades.