ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF URBAN SPRAWL ON AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND FOOD PRODUCTION IN MOUNT BARKER, ADELAIDE’

DRAFT

ABSTRACT

Mount Barker, Adelaide is a town in Australia that situated next to Adelaide City and mostly is a region dominated with farming activities. Currently, it is undergoing the phenomenon of urban sprawl.  The lands for agricultural purposes that have been serving as the major source of livelihood many people in the area have suffered encroachment as a result of the urban sprawl process.  Hence, the main income as a result of the urban sprawl phenomenon is the increased sprawl within the fringes of its estates.

Thus, this study assesses the effects of urban sprawl on agricultural land use and food security in Mount Barker, Adelaide. Consequently, the primary and secondary data were acquired from the farmers of food crops in the estates belonging to Mount Barker such as Newnhzam, Summit, Spring Lake, Glenlea and the institutions or commissions in charge of the areas.  Upon its collection, an analysis was done on the primary data was done by excel software which assisted in the generation of charts and graphs for interpreting the study.

A similar case was utilized in summarizing the information acquired which assisted in ascertaining the true findings from the selected area of study. Meanwhile, the study has its implications on the farmlands within the peripherals regarding their sustainability and the eventual effects concerning food security. Finally, the study suggests for integrating the agriculturally based lands into the urban-based land use for effective management and securing of the unstable space for farming.

CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.0. Introduction

Urban sprawl refers to the growth of areas of housing, roads and commercial development mostly in the urban sector. Similarly, it also defines the external physical expansion of cities in terms of densities, distinguished by how land is utilized and inter-dependent societies. Urban sprawl entails changing the open space, natural vegetation, wetland, and agricultural land into urban settings by planning Afifi (2013).  Often urban sprawl happens following the consumption of the land-based resources for the sake of accommodating new urbanized environments.

Similarly, urban sprawl happens following the infrastructural and housing expansion. Urban sprawl as an area that is urbanized, including another new area that has been subjected to urbanization Amato (2015). A new area entails at least one-mile grid-based cells that have at least six dwelling units in which thirty per cent of employees’ head to the urban setting. The sprawl has effects on cities in the nations that are still developing plus the developed ones Jiang (2015).

Also, in advanced nations with an effective spatial form of the organization concerning zoning, the effects out of sprawl with regards to the social form of environment expenses lead to various challenges linked with planning La Greca (2011). For example, in a state such as the New Jersey situated in the USA, at most sixty per cent of the land classified as being prime was eventually lost as a result of urbanization between the years 1986 and 1995. On the other hand, the surfaces deemed as being impervious experienced some increment by close to ten per cent in the state.

One of the major challenging threats towards agriculture in the present world is the urban sprawl Hennig (2015). Similarly, urban sprawl represents a typical category of development that often happens within the cylindrical based bands that enclose bigger urban centres across the globe. In some situations, the urban sprawl growth has its origin as the non-connected developments and the single homesteads set external to the places beyond the coverage of the city though reachable to the city through commuting from the centre of the city.

Further to this, with time, the areas linking the non-connected populace and the urban centres start getting occupied with residential areas, big ware outlets, plus other business activities. Others include the parking lots as well as the manicured types of lawns up to the moment of the creation of the dense suburb. There is a strong correlation between food security, urban sprawl, and agricultural land Afifi (2013). The justification for this is that being that the supply of land is fixed, then cities or towns’ growth results in the reduction of the lands available that should be used for agricultural purposes.

If the land is used for agricultural purposes it will serve to offer food, clean water and fresh air to the cities hence reducing pollution. Poor quality of land, however, cannot hinder agricultural growth for various tests can be done on the soil to determine crops that can survive in those conditions. An important aspect of innovation in agriculture. Indoor vertical farming will potentially raise crop yields, do away with limited land and also reduce the impacts of farming on the environment.

In Mount Barker, the situation is equally the same. Australia is a nation that heavily invests in agriculture. A bigger part of its land and workforce is invested in agriculture consequently posting a major contribution to the country’s Gross Domestic Production (GDP)

Concerning the income provisions, food security, export earnings, and employment, in Australia, agriculture leads among the sectors of the economy of the country. Agriculture has a contribution of 3% of the nation’s GDP and has absorbed 4% of the labour force directly. Though the contribution of the sector in the GDP of the country may be small, the yet to be processed agricultural products or the raw ones have a contribution of at least twenty-five per cent of the total earnings recorded from exportations annually in Australia

Australia is exporting more agricultural content in comparison to its importations. In the year 1998, the agricultural exportations from the country were approximated at US$15.14 billion when compared to US$3.11 billion value of agricultural importations during the very year. The major agricultural commodities that Australia grows are coarse grains, rice, wheat, grain legumes, cotton, fruits, tobacco, and vegetables. On the same note, the major livestock being reared are sheep for wool, poultry, and dairy animals.

Lately, there have tendencies in the rise of the residential form of housing within the urban territory demarcated by the government plus the private entities for their respective employees or those developing properties for selling. There is urban sprawl in various cities across Australia Afifi (). A city in the south known as Mount Baker, 33km from Adelaide city is an example. Urban sprawl has indeed covered Mount Barker because the sustainability of the populace living in the city, which relies on agriculture, has been under the threat of the urban sprawl Frenkel (2004).

Consequently, with the built-up regions rising, this result in the reduction of the lands meant for farming, developers digging out the surface-based soil as well as the farmers being pushed in using the marginal, based lands. Though the sparse population of Australia, which is 24 million, is major concentrated in capital cities or a few big towns, the growth in the population in Mt. Baker is brought by increased effects of urban sprawl Kroll (2012).

For instance, there is an estimation that between the years 2017 and 2046, the population of the country will rise by close to twelve million people. Also, on rough estimation, close to 75/% of the growth will happen in major cities such as Melbourne, Perth, Sydney, and Brisbane. In this list, Mount Barker, Adelaide, will not be left out as well. Though growth in the population comes with the increased chance of boosting the prosperity of the economy, it also has its challenges with regards to the affordability and the development of the urban centres Lambin (2011).

The drastic rise in the prices for housing in various markers so far is becoming a threat to Australia in owning bigger detached houses on large plots of land. In Mount Barker, the average prices of the prices shot to 74% in the previous five years Hennig et al. (2015).  The growth of the population is higher in the cities with an annual rise of 1.7% in the future. The rising demand for housing in bigger towns, including Mount Barker, also enhances the chances of the urban sprawl.

Every state and the state-based territories in Australia have been assigned urban growth of administrative boundaries within their respective planning management to counter the expansion Lambin (2011).  Normally, these boundaries have ended up being over-stretched on regular occasions. In every situation identified earlier, the peripheral and the urban form of agriculture are regarded as being major threats. The contribution of urban-based agriculture towards the Australian economy indeed is impossible to ignore.

As stated by urban-based agriculture refers to that enterprise that is situated within either or through the fringe of an urban locality that is growing, processing, and distributing diverse food sources Frenkel (2004). In this regard, it entails the usage of mainly the human and material contents, as well as the services, got in and near the urban centres. Consequently, it aids in supplying in the form of human and even the material based contents and services mostly to the urban localities.

The urban-based agriculture engages in the production of a minimum of fifteen per cent of the supply of food in the globe and possibly may have a vital role in the attainment of the global-based food security Frenkel (). In Mount Barker, Adelaide, there have been considerations put for the possibility of improving food security, though, as the issue about urbanization continues, the issues linked with food security in cities such as Adelaide and the nearby environs will indeed rise.

Nearly three-quarters of the fresh foodstuffs consumed in major towns in Australia originates from Adelaide Frenkel (2004). The significance associated with the urban form of agriculture within the economy, a country including Australia, where Mount Barker, Adelaide, is situated Millar (2012). First, it engages in supplying a minimum of three-quarters of the horticultural commodities in the town. On a second note, close to 500,000 persons, who are engaged in the patronization of the restaurants and the street-based food in Mount Barker, reap the benefit associated with the urban production daily Foley (2005).

On top of this, it serves as the source for the increasing herbal plants such as the Marsh Mallow, Pot Marigold, Aloe Vera, and many more, wherein this case aid in domesticating the shorter duration’s cycle based species like the mushroom and the cutter.

1.1. Statement of Research Problem

The major problem associated with the process of urban sprawl is the drastic conversion of larger quantities of the prime lands meant for agriculture to urban development within the urban periphery. The effects may end up being the loss of the primer lands meant for agriculture and lower productivity with regards to agriculture. This development may affect the crops that are reared in more significant quantities, such as those meant for exportation Walker (2001).

Besides the possibilities of danger on the farmers of food crops, also there may be suspicion for cases of insecurity in the coming future within the area of study. The drastic loss of the lands meant for farming to the government and those who intend to develop on a private basis as estates Skog (2016). Similarly, would insecurity would lead to low levels of living that arise as a result of the lower income levels among farmers. In such a situation, the affected farmers will be forced to undertake the adjustments of their styles of living through adopting varied ventures.

Hence, cases of such kind are eminent in Mount Barker in Adelaide. The present sporadic form of urban sprawling in Mount Barker requires studies since there are chances of the local-based scale farmers being poor urban dwellers upon their farming activity being eliminated Wu (2008). The system of land tenure has been marked as one of the contributing aspects of drastic urban sprawling in the area of study. Families and individuals holding title deeds are resorting to selling their tracts of land to the individual based tenants, private developers of the city and agencies from the government.

1.2. Research Questions

The evidence linked with the urban sprawl in Mount Barker and its effects on agricultural production necessitates the questions that may be raised about the situation and the amount of land that can be potentially affected by urban sprawl. Hence, this study will be after answering the below questions;

1. Which crops and land will be more affected by urban sprawl?
2. Will urban sprawl have an effect on farmers’ income and the amount of money made through intensification of land use?

• How is the relationship held between individuals and institutions is impacting food production and its security in the selected area of study?

1. What are the roles served by the stakeholders in the provision of the livelihood form of security for crop farmers in the selected area of study?

1.3. Hypothesis

Ho: Urban sprawl has never had negative effects on farmlands

Ha: Urban sprawl has had negative effects on the farmlands

1.4. General Study Objectives

The primary objective carried by the study is the assessment of the effect of the urban sprawl on the agricultural land use and food security in Mount Barker, Adelaide

1.5. Specific Objectives

1. To find out which crops that are more affected by the urban sprawl
2. To investigate how the system of land tenure has had impacts food crop farmers regarding the accessibility of land

• To establish on the roles served by the stakeholders in the provision of security towards the livelihood of farmers with regards to the urban sprawling in the selected area of study

1.6. Justification of the Study

Whenever a city expands, it tends to have an influence on the nearby farmers that eventually results in deliberate displacements. Indeed, it is a fact that the urban fringe societies close to the city that is expanding enjoy the due advantage associated with the value of the land, accessibility of the urban-based services, and rural forms of development relationships or the trickle-down impact linked with development. Regardless of this particular opportunity, the urban-based fringe societies near the city encounter problems that range from economic, insecurity of the land tenure, socio-cultural issues, and the deterioration of the environment.

Accessibility in Mount Barker and the use of land sustainably within the urban-based periphery is currently emerging as a sensitive issue for people and institutions in Mount .

1.7. Scope of Research

The research focuses on the evaluation of urban sprawl, the use of agricultural-based land, including security within Mount Barker, in Australia. The study is centred on the main communities situated in the town. Thus, the evaluation of the underlying firms from the very community would be conducted and further complemented with the likely food cases of insecurity among the communities. The choice of Mount Barker, Adelaide, is dictated by the role it serves as farming city and its nearness to the major cities and markets.

Mount Barker, Adelaide, is situated nearly thirty-three kilometres near Adelaide city centre. The communities that live in the city were and up to date still practising farming though this has been affected by the drastic urbanization in the area hence pushing them away from towns. Hence, this study evaluates and assesses the characteristics associated with urban sprawl, agricultural production, food security and markets where food is sold which are mostly for international markets. This would enable for effectively understanding the lifestyles and the farmers’ income.

1.8. Organization of the Study

The study will be conducted into a total of five chapters. The first chapter will be the introduction of the study. In this chapter, it will factor the introduction, statement of the problem, hypothesis, research questions, research objectives, the scope of the study, and the justification for it. The chapter presents the review of the literature on urban sprawl, agricultural land use, and food security in Mount Barker, Adelaide. Chapter three presents a discussion about the Methodology of research, while chapter four dwells on results and discussions about the study.

The final chapter, which is the fifth one, focuses on finding limitations linked with the study, conclusion, and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0. Introduction

This chapter will focus on the ‘Review of literature about urban sprawl.’ Moreover, it will highlight the use of land for agricultural purposes and food security and its market. Also, the definition provided other scholars are also provided that would lead to an effective understanding of the evaluation of the urban sprawl, land use for agricultural purposes and food security in the selected area societies. Similarly, the chapter presents a discussion about the plans and policies that the city administrations have implemented towards managing the urban sprawl.

On top of this, this section presents the conceptual framework that detail on the structure of the studies.

2.1 The urban sprawl concept and peri-urban development

Earl Draper in the year 1937 invented the concept behind ‘urban’ in the United States of America (Barthel & Isendahl, The terminology has been applied by various planners of cities, towns and urban centres to denote the wasteful urban growth. Urban sprawl refers to the sequence of development revolving on the periphery about a city and is rising renowned feature centred on the environment within nations deemed as being industrialized.

The scenario leads to the reduction of the orderly physical form of development that facilitates economical and efficient usage of land as well as the management of the fringes of cities that are rapidly urbanizing.  Urban sprawl can also be defined as the spread of the city through its suburbs. The construction of the commercial and residential structures in the adjacent rural localities or places underdeveloped within the outskirts of an Urban Centre Gyasi et al (2014).

Following the expansion of cities, the primary zone linked with the direct effect is the per-urban area Enaruvbe (2015). The people who are in the areas transitioning from rural to the urban area are known as peri-urban societies. From their perspective development is described as being scattered, spread and patchy with the sequence of being non-continuous. On the same the peri-urban form of development to the urban sprawl because the urban sprawl is indeed the up-coming of the low-density cases of the development normally above the limit of the city Barthel (2013).

Urban sprawl as the aspect identifiable by low-density slow-paced development most dominating the economic and population actions within the peri-urban centres as well as the segregated land applications Gyasi et al (2014). From a conceptual viewpoint, the main relationship linking the peri-urban development and the urban sprawl is indeed the demise of the ancient dependence in agriculture within those living in the peri-urban centres.

Eventually, this leads to the competition within the land available in the per-urban because of the drastic expansion within the city. The eventual impact of the phenomenon of the urban sprawl is the involvement of the dwellers in the peri-urban in economic activities that are less profitable like the commercial, petty business activities and other associated livelihoods Enaruvbe (2015). Urban sprawl is seen from a varied perspective that is dictated by the expert’s background Dabie (2015).

Hence, the idea seems to generate many controversies in various debates. Regarding the same, this conforms to the terminology about conceptual vagueness and the negative forms of connotation Gyasi et al (2014).  With the desire of covering diverse amalgamations and contradictions, a section of the scholars including La Greca, La Rosa, Martinico & Privitera (2011) has made attempts in according it a natural and concise mode of meaning.

Urban sprawl is the sequence of using land within an urbanized setting that shows low instances of some aspect of the unique dimensions, clustering, density, centrality, proximity, concentration and nuclearity Jiang (2013). Four meanings about the same can be identified. The first case is classified as urban forms in opposition to the compact city. The second cases explain density gradients while the third case gives the analysis of urban sprawl with regards to land use and changes taking place on land cover.

The fourth case factors the negative effect views. Based on these very definitions, there indeed are certain dimensions about urban sprawl that require consideration, with specific reference to the negative effects because of the effect they have on the environment and the lives of the human beings Enaruvbe (2015). Mok et al. (2014) identified some of these effects in Adelaide where instances about consequence mode of planning were indeed never anticipated.

Thus, the justification by them was that urbanization plus the processes occurring in it are constituents of the process of modernization and proposed socio-economic as well as other deleterious environmental consequences that need to be suppressed.  For this research, it aligns to the classification of urban sprawl that evaluates the urban sprawl occurring on land Dabie (2015). The only difference is that the study proceeds to present the discussion concerning the impact of the urban sprawl on food security.

2.2 Trends in peri-urban sprawl

Peri-urban is under the influence of varied social types of forces in Australia. Growth in the national population and rural to urban migration sequences are the two major debated aspects though they are not the only cases. Institutional forms of dimensions linked with the property rights and the laws governing the land tenure too have an impact on the chances of the peri-urban cases of the irregular settlements Afifi (2013). Processes that are very costly in judicial operations, corruption and red tape tend to be discouraging the low-income settlers from accessing the normal system of land tenure via the judicial system.

Eventually, this results in the decrement in the chances of regulating land.  On top of this, the growth of settlement from a distant in less serviced peri-urban localities is under the strong influence from the market-based prices of the land. The central areas that appear to be very expensive and the low earning groups including the latest migrants that are facilitated or chased away from the city outskirts Al Tarawneh (2014).

Majority of the policies within the urban centres are expected to be supporting environmental quality through the city like the definition of low-density localities and the strategies of zoning that lead to the production of more sprawl through raising the prices of land within the central urban regions Aliaâ (2017). However, the policies touching on housing may serve a great role in the reduction of the non-regular forms of settlement within the peri-urban regions Amato (2015).

Besides the bigger private-owned firms and projects about public housing that are only eminent in Mexico and Chile, several nations introduced the land laws initiatives as cheaper ways of handling non-formal settlements Angotti (2015). Despite late gaining value in its growth, the initiatives, in this case, have experienced setbacks within the area as a result of lack of legislation and slower process within the judiciary. Many nations as established by Barthel & Isendahl (2013) are yet to attain crucial mass than can prevent the growth of population in the peri-urban regions.

On top of this, the growth in the economy, distribution of income and the availability of credit also have an impact on the non-regular per-urban development.  The poor and the average low-income earners have the opportunity for accessing the formal markets for housing despite the availability of subsidies as much as this is also dictated by the economic form of stability, presence of formal employment and longer duration loans Haroldo (2011).  Chile so far is the country in South America to undertaken major reduction in the share of illegal forms of settlement and this has been depicted in the stable economic form of development in the country in the previous two decades.

Local institutions are facing critical institutional oriented constraints that in many cases lead to the limitation in offering the social forms of services as well as solving major problems facing the environment. Despite being cheap in comparison to the ancient projects about housing, the implementation of the urban-based projects may prove to be very expensive Haroldo (2011).  For instance, the cost averagely of each household in Sao Paulo, Brazil ranged between $300 and $15000 in the year 2010.

However, this was dictated by the density of the population, topography and the past urban design which entail the supply of basic amenities such as water, electricity, sewage management and resettling of the population. One of the possible ways of exploring future trends in the peri-urban sprawl is defining the variation between urbanization levels Cecchini et al. (2019). Urbanized and more urbanized nations that include Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Mexico and Brazil will for sure witness fall in the population share residing in peri-urban localities Haroldo (2011).

The trend will be identifiable with the bigger metropolitan regions despite the existence of the issue of urban sprawl. The trend, in this case, will happen following the slow growth in demographics, development of projects within the urban settings, enhanced stability in expansion economically and introducing new mechanisms which are institution based that are favouring the regulation of land. Countries like Ecuador, Bolivia, Honduras, Guatemala and Paraguay with average and low cases of urbanization may continue experiencing increment in the cases of urbanization and more shares in the population residing in the peri-urban illegal settlements in the coming fifteen years (Haroldo, 2011).

In these regions, the population within the urban settings is still experiencing major growth though the governments normally lack the resources for carrying major improvements in the urban places. The expansion happening on the agricultural-based frontier like the Brazilian savannas and near the Amazon in Peru, Bolivia and Brazil also leads to the production of faster and non-stable dynamics in urbanization Haroldo (2011). The more speedy developing cities in the previous decade are situated in Mato Grosso state in the west of Brazil and some states in the Amazon regions such as Para.

Many of these regions are less prepared in handing notable cases of urban migration that can happen within a shorter duration as a result of exploration of timber, infrastructural developments and initial developments concerning agriculture. The speculation of land and drastic increment in offering the informal or formal employment opportunities tend to be the attraction point for major cases of migration and eventually piling pressure on the local-based public services Millar (2012).

At long last, they result in illegal growth and settlement in the urban localities. This category of land occupation as that which leads to the production of ‘boom and bust phenomenon’ that is eminent in the southern region of Rondonia, Brazil Enaruvbe (2015). The area has witnessed major growth in the previous decades though it is currently losing population since many stable economic operations are yet to be put to place. This slows down urban sprawl for there is less manpower to support growth.

2.3 The peri-urban environment

Globally, urban sprawl has been linked with the fragmentation and damage occurring on the natural habitat, reduction in the species’ diversity and rise in the flood risks following more extensive surfaces that are impervious. Similarly, urban sprawl has been associated with more times of commuting, pollution of the air, increment in the obese persons, higher consumption energies, loss of the land’s aesthetic value and the loss of the farmland too Martellozz (2018).

The scenarios are true in the Caribbean and Latin America through the peri-urban sprawl in the region entails limited cases of sanitation, poor conditions of housing, increment in risks associated with health, invasion of the reserved areas, instances of deforestation and pollution effects on water bodies. Situations linked with the risks towards the environment are also very familiar. Cases of the peri-urban settlement are identifiable in Quito and Mexico City. global warming is increasing crucial concerns about the rise in the occurrence of the harsh climatic patterns, infrastructural destruction and more risks from water and vector-borne forms of infections, where the peri-urban places are less prepared Dadi et al. (2016).

In the central region of America, Hurricane Mitch spurred the establishment of new forms of urban devastation records upon hitting the Tegucigalpa and the nearby areas thus leading to the destruction of nearly 80% of pipelines supply water including other effects. Cities within the coastal regions that include the Havan, Panama, Santo Domingo and Rio de Janeiro are indeed not prepared in handling major cases about windstorms Dekolo (2016).

2.4 The peri-urban and urban sprawl agriculture

Agriculture that serves as the major source of life sustenance for those living in the peri-urban places faces serious threats from the drastic sprawling. Scarcity problem of land for the agricultural production that will continue arising Ramankutty et al. (2018). Hence, the assigning of the land meant for agriculture for the development of residential homes has led to a decrease in the land sizes. Hence, farmers find themselves being left with small-sized lands or none at all for cultivation and consequently leading to them becoming more vulnerable.

In general, agriculture, as well as the production of food for the population living in urban settings, has been happening in rural places only since the beginning. In a realistic sense, this undertaking has registered failures in various countries because of the unavailable infrastructure and the missing power of purchasing from the urban poor Barthel & Isendahl (2013). Despite the interests towards agriculture in the urban settings being very salient, it is still being carried for in smaller magnitudes Al Tarawneh (2014).

For example, the interface of the peri-urban of many areas within the urban settings that exhibit the characteristics identifiable with the rural and urban lifestyle is in many situations the agricultural basket of the city dwellers and at last, also becomes the supply of the majority of the food needs. The zoning of the fertile lands suitable for agricultural activities Angotti (2015). Hence, the growth of cities due to the drastic urbanization must be directed towards the agricultural lands that are less fertile, unlike the fertile ones.

On top of this, had the suggestion for green belts to be factored during the schemes of planning so that they could offer to the inordinate need for expansion. Effective planning entails the zoning and factors the agricultural selected zones as well as fostering the high –rise facilities instead of the single storey types and this regard would assist in the conservation of the peri-urban based lands as well as minimizing the cases of the landlessness.

2.5 Urban sprawl and it’s socio-economic and the physical manifestations

The social and physical manifestations regarding urban sprawl may be evaluated through various dimensions. The factors that lead to urban sprawl in certain regions within the US such as Washington may be linked to the low cost of commuting, increasing level of incomes, taxation from the government, policies of zooming and the readiness from the households in taking advantage of the peer forms of externalities. Others are the avoidance of traffic, crime, noise as well as the presence of homes with sufficient greenery and space (Millar & Roots, 2012).

In the US, urban sprawl is identifiable with the peri-urban form of development. Residents living in cities experiencing urban sprawl realizes hard in travelling even for short distances minus using vehicles because of the residential areas remoteness and the unavailability of the mode of transportation that includes the bike paths, transit and walkways. Canada and US, continue to lose close to 5,000 sq km of land believed to be prime for agricultural production for infrastructural development, reservoirs plus other uses not related to agriculture Mok et al. (2014).

For instance, between 1980 and 1993, the Puerto Rico urban area experienced increment from 11.5 up to 27.2 per cent. The conclusion reached by them was where the sequence of the urban encroachment persists, the growth of urban centres in the place destined for agriculture; the potentiality of production by Puerto Rico will decline in the future. The negative impacts linked with the urban sprawl on towns in America are the inequalities in health, environmental pollution and consequently its degradation.

Similarly, the model of growth categorized as being smart type has been tried in the US as the option for growth irrespective of the many criticisms has been levelled on it Dabie (2015). Such criticisms are that it leads to the reduction of the values of properties, rise in the housing costs and the disruption of the present communities.  Likewise, the model of smart growth refers to the policy of framework that fosters the pattern of development identified by higher densities of population, bikeable and walkable neighbourhoods, conserved green environments and diversified developmental use La Greca (2011).

Trends dating from the past reveal that from the period of 1950s, the land places within major cities in Europe have undergone expansion by close to 77% which is more than the predicted 32%. The main accelerating factor towards this trend is because the cities in Europe have ended being very less compact La Greca (2011). Squatters living in the compacted urban centres have had their replacements with the free mode standing blocks, detached and semi-detached structures.

Further to this, places with renowned visible effects linked with the urban sprawl in countries in Europe include the regions with higher densities of population and economic-related activities like Belgium Dadi et al. (2016). The demise of the peripheral agriculturally based lands to the cases of sprawl within a section of countries in Europe like Norway and Netherlands that posted losses of 1.7% and 4.2% every year to sprawl Jiang (2013).

This gives the loss of the comparative form of advantage by ca country within the diversified farm activities as the nation continue losing its lands believed to be fertile for urban sprawl Jiang (2013). A similar trend has been identified through research conducted in Sofia where the land usage was found to be undergoing the transition state Mok et al. (2014). The peri-urban based villages within the southern region of Sofia so far cannot be classified as agricultural lands since the lands in such places have been overtaken by the housing developments.

Examples of cities that have emerged as a result such form of infrastructural developments are Mladost and Darvenitza that their lands were at first used for agricultural purposes.

2.6 Urban sprawl characteristics and determinants

Various factors dictate the rate of growth of urban sprawl and its continuity towards the desired direction. Certain scholars have listed a section of factors as the features and the determinants of the urban sprawl La Greca (2011). For instance, the urban sprawls are identifiable with higher growth rates of population because of the effects brought by the migration and the natural tendency of increment.

The availability of the infrastructural oriented services and the opportunities in employment within the urban environment often serve as the attraction point for persons who hail from varied settings such as the rural localities. Consequently, this results in spurring the development of the cities. Urban sprawl leads to land use segregation through varied zones because of the self-form of sorting on a population were classified as the racial form of segregation Al Tarawneh (2014).

Consequently, this situation leads to the more dependence on the trickle-down or the filtering process that facilitates the provision of the housing units to lower-income earners with limited cases of consumer options concerning the place and means of living, segregated type of housing, stores and the workplace from one region plus the decrement in the civic and social form of interactions together with the support.

Systems of transportations that are efficient are believed to the more vital aspects regarding the cities’ spread, it is continuing with growth as time elapses Mok et al. (2014). The non-limited external extension of urban centres in combination with the low costs of transportation has resulted into the possibility of living further from the city’s central business district (CBD) but still reaping the advantages associated with the location of the city.

However, there is the continuation in the sprawling of cities including the suburbs that are identifiable with the non-productive congestion on top automobile pollution levels, roads, the demise of the once open places and the inequality in the offering to the public utility based commodities through the sprawling suburbs associated with the city. The same is linked with a weaker centralized mode of planning about the actions of the stakeholders who are affected by Dadi et al. (2016).

In this regard, the scholar further stated that the affected stakeholders by the policies of urban planning have diversified interests that again are ever opposing and conflicting both on political and moral perspectives.

2.7 The value of

Urban based agriculture may mean the growth, process and distribution of both food plant and the tree-based crops including keeping livestock in urban settings Mok et al. (2014). On a simple note, the economical productive activity is carried majorly in the open-air settings within the realm of urban settings. For a long while, agriculture in urban areas has been carried for many years across the world and has had its integration within the many places in urban localities.

However urban fringe has become a great threat on the same. The practise continues in various areas that are crucial in the city such as the streets, park, schools and public gardens Al Tarawneh (2014).  Other places are the edge within the cities and the community-based gardens including other regions that deemed very beneficial to live in the city. However, urban agriculture has been underrated when it comes to the formulation of the policies regarding the development of the urban settings by the planners despite being very sensitive with regards to ensuring the well-being and the health of the citizens.

The potentiality linked with the urban agriculture within the cities is vital and the benefits it has towards the cities are quite diverse Dadi et al. (2016). Many municipalities are indeed depicting that urban agriculture is essential and also viable when it comes to land use. Urban agriculture and systems of food are diverse besides being crucial components of the economic, spiritual, physical and economic well-being of the areas where the planners have great concern with Jiang (2013).

First, it acts as a means of ensuring food security. The own production agriculturally in the urban settings for every household formed the vital source of food for may low income earning households, that has been categorized as the self-subsistence, with the surpluses being converted to cash for boosting the income of the family Mok et al. (2014). The other rationale behind urban agriculture is the value economically and the capacity of generating local form of development.

In this regard, the major objective is to attain a productive city; that which is capable of production within its outskirts as a result of the locally grown farm produce. The production, processing and marketing of food as other aspects that lead to the generation of income and employment to diverse urban-based households Al Tarawneh (2014). Intensive peri-urban livestock and horticultural production are growing at a faster rate and consequently employing several employees that again lead to the production of the more value-added commodities.

In the end, such trends in production lead to viable incomes and the returns as well. Employment and income not only result from the generated form of production but again in the sector of processing, the supply of the agricultural inputs and marketing. Despite the levels of the production and even the turnover among the individual producers in the urban centres or vendors on several occasions projected of being small, their higher population within the city result into the overall contribution towards the economy of the urban centres is very significant.

On a third note, urban agriculture in some scenarios constitutes the integrated form of policy about the environment that its major benefit is the contribution in making the city green. Others are the increment in the accessibility of nature by citizens, leisure and recreation as well as enhancing awareness about the environment. Increment in the accessibility of the healthy form of environment or the reduction of the ecological form of footprint in every dimension is very beneficial to the city environmental health-wise Al Tarawneh (2014).

By incorporating proper planning and integration of the urban and the peripheral form of design, urban agriculture may assist in improving the physical form of climate Angotti (2015). For instance, flowers, trees, shrubs and ornamental production, as well as the food crops, may enhance the beautification of the city plus its surrounding environment that in this regard encompasses the cool climate, managing of the effects of soil erosion and the absorption of the pollution due from air and odours. On the same note, urban sprawl may foster biodiversity via the ecologically-based drivers and the related systems of production.

2.8 The use of urban land or changes on land cover

The surface of the earth from time and its existence as well has experienced changes as well as the modifications of different magnitudes and timelines. Part of the changes happens within a short period; some take longer while others may also temporary or permanent (Chen 2007).  The speed, spatial reach and magnitude of the immediate and non-immediate changes on the surface of the land perpetuated by the actions of human beings recently are indeed unprecedented Barthel (2013).

On the same note, land use including the change on its cover is essential effectors plus the outcomes from the human accelerated actions leading to the alteration of the earth’s surface. For instance, when the changes or use of the land situated in urban centres become universally aggregated, the changes become very insidious such that they may have a notable impact on major aspects constituting the function of the earthy system Dabie (2015).

The patterns of land cover and its use from a given locality is more viewed to depict the outcome linked with the natural and socio-economic aspects as well as their respective use by human beings as time progresses Dadi et al.  (2016). The changes direct effect on the biotic life globally and lead to the local and the global change in climate plus global warming effects as a result of the climate change.

Classified the changes also as the major constituents leading to the degradation of soil through the alteration of the services within the ecosystem and in turn affecting the capacity the biological-based systems into supporting the needs of the human beings Enaruvbe (2015). Such changes are categorized as those that affect the vulnerability of people and regions towards economic, socio-political and climatic disturbances or perturbations.

2.9 Gender relationships and land tenure

Women have been identified as the serving critical role in the maintenance and the strategic use of land and natural-based resources. Hence, any discussion involving land tenure and the livelihoods demands the special handling of gender and any combination of strategies leading to sustainable food security must tackle the accessibility of productive resources by women. On a typical basis, gender affairs are dictated by the reigning socio-political setups and religion-based value-oriented systems Lin (2007).

Reformation of land and the forces behind the modernization have resulted in mixture impact on women status Africa Mok et al. (2014). Few cases involving the resettlement initiatives or agrarian reformation have notable female beneficiaries or dedicate to the issue of gender as the category for awarding benefits.  Some situations, on the other hand, have seen women gaining more accessibility of land via reformations, especially where the involvement of women in rural localities has been effectively outlined within the state-based policy.

In other nations too, the feudal based system in which women have been from the past been had subordinate duties in the family mode of production Ramankutty et al. (2018). Also, there exist various instances in which the women institutions have been waging wars towards gaining access to land that can eventually practice collective farming.

2.10 The conceptual framework

The section details the framework where the organization of the study was done. Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework about urban sprawl, agricultural land use and food security. There is an interconnection between the components of the framework.  Drivers are in place responsible for propelling of the urban sprawl and they are the institutions involved in the surveying of land and its commissioning. Others include the market of urban land. A vital point worth noting is that increase in population is proportional to the demand for land for development in the urban centres.

The supply of land is fixed and thus many people keep on demanding it for the sake of building. By assuming that other aspects, the uses associated with land have to be forfeited. In many peripheral places in Mount Barker, Adelaide’, the demand associated with land is high when compared to the price. Hence, this justifies that demand dictates the price tag on land, especially in Mount Baker and its environs. Players in the urban market are the developers of real estate and persons who proceed with the acquisition of land for erecting homes, farming and business purposes. Hence, these drivers contribute to urban sprawling.

Figure 1: Conceptual framework about the urban sprawling, agricultural land use and food security

Source: Dabie (2015). 

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

The pressures to develop land and the issues of urban fringe were the basis of the research question. Concerning it the research methodology a comprehensive explanation concerning the process and steps deployed during the study Mohajan (2018). In this regard, the chapter covers the research design, data requirements and its collection methods, techniques of sampling and tools for acquiring information from the targeted community. On top of this, the chapter outlines the certain research stages including the detailed stages leading to the administration of questionnaire plus the interviews carried out during the fieldwork moments.

3.1. Source of data

Any research minus any doubt regarding the sourcing of data may be done on varied places despite this is dependent on the relevancy of information in terms of quality of the information that the researcher needs Basias & Pollalis (2018). In this study, the researcher relied on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was given more attention. The sources of primary data that were used in the study were the focus group discussion, questionnaires and observations.

Moreover, relevant board documents were used to support the same

3.2 Methods and strategy of the research

During the process involved in collecting data for research, many tools were utilized. Qualitative and quantitative data tools were used in the research to Wiek & Lang (of the respondents, characteristics of employment, main crops reared, level of income, food security, issues about land tenure and the source of livelihood among the farming communities.

For the sake of getting qualitative data, while using in-depth interview during the study that indeed had to be structured for the targeted institutions (see appendix 2) plus other stakeholders in the field covered by the topic of study Humphries (2017). The relevant stakeholder was the Farmers Union, Forestry Department, Estate Developers and Focus Groups. The researcher during the process of collecting data was the moderator so that desirable data for the study could be collected.

3.3 Techniques of sampling

The technique of the purposive sampling was deployed for selecting four estates that had notable urban sprawl effect in Mount Barker. The estates were Summit, Glenlea, Newenham, and SpringLake. The similar purposive technique of sampling was applied in selecting the respondents in the estates selected. The technique of sampling was deemed appropriate because the study was after finding out from the respondents who are from specific occupational domain; that is the crop farmer and should have lived in the study for a minimum of two years.

The technique was further deployed in the selected organizations and some renowned based opinion leaders who were directly chosen or had an either direct or non-direct relationship with the urban sprawl, agricultural land use and food security.

3.4 Size of the sample and the targeted group

The farmers’ population figures from the identified four estates were 6656. The formulae were deployed in calculating the sizes of the samples for the estate used in the study;

In which:

n=size of the sample

N=size of the population

e=precision level

Proceeding with the substitution in the formula, it leads to;

1. Summit

N= 2330

e = 95% level of confidence or the accepted error of sampling at 10%,

n= 2330/ 1+2330 (0.1) (0.1)

• 88
• 4 ≈ 96

Glenlea

N= 1664

e = 95% level of confidence or 10% allowable error in sampling

n= 1664/ 1+1664) (0.1) (0.1) = 94

Newenham

N= 1331

e = 95% level of confidence or 10% acceptable allowable error in sampling

n= 1331/ 1+1331(0.1) (0.1) = 93

Newenham and SpringLake have similar farmers’ population figures and thus leading a similar size of the samples Kumar (2019).

Based on the statistics above, the highest acceptable respondents would stand out to be 96 that would be taken from Summit to coincide with 95% level of confidence and 10% level of precision within the estate. Thus, seventy questionnaires were distributed to them instead of 96 found out from the formula. A similar scenario was also used to have 50 at Glenlea and 40 for both Newenham and SpringLake by applying the interview methodology. Hence, 200 respondents were identified from the four estates to participate in the study.

With the consideration of evaluating the impact associated with the urban sprawl, agricultural land use and food security, the target was only on the crop farmers in answering the household-oriented questionnaires for the study. On top of this, five institutions and two stakeholders were subjected to an interview. The institutions include the Planning Department, Agricultural Department, Mango Growers Union, Summit Real Estate Developers and SpringLake Land Estate Developers. Others were the Forestry Department and the Local Administration who represented the Opinion Leaders.

3.5. Techniques for analyzing data

The collected data were subjected to analysis by use of the statistical equipment and procedures. Eventually, the finding was fed in the excel tool. Later computation was done for the percentages of various variables such as levels of income, sizes of the farm, changes in the land cover, the urban sprawl levels, food security, the quantity of food production, crops affected as a result of the urban sprawl, the pattern of rainfall, litigation associated with land plus others. Also, charts and graphs for the sake of interpretation were generated.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0. Introduction

This chapter intends to use the data gathered from the study in testing and investigating whether the conceptual framework issues explored in the second chapter about the evaluation of the urban sprawl, agricultural land use and food security in Mount Barker, Adelaide’ are attainable. Also, specific objectives about this research have had the critical examination with the extent of finding the possibility of their realization including the testing on the hypothesis.

4.1. The respondents’ social and demographic profile

The study’s purpose as advised was after seeing the data got from crop growing farmers and the institutions that have direct involvement in urban sprawl, agricultural land use and the food security Alurkar et al. (2019). Consequently, 200 participants were subjected for interview were male were 59.5%, female at 40.5%. The survey found 33.5% of respondents cohabiting, married being at 33%, 12.5% being divorced while the rest were still single.  Regarding education level, 53.5% had primary education, 22% lacked education, 1% had tertiary based levels while others lacked even the tertiary level.

Table 1: Gender representation

Figure 1: Pie-chart on gender representation

Source; Primary data

Table 2: Marital status

Figure 2: Line graph on marital status

Source; Primary data

Table 3: Education level

Figure 3: Bar graph on the education level

Source; Primary data

4.2. The duration of involvement in farming practices by the respondents

The study established that 84% among the participants have been residing in the study area for at least eight years. Others have been living in the area between two to seven years. Also, all the farmers who participated in the interview have been practising farming for two years. With the desire of getting desirable outcomes about the use or changes taking place on the land, the researcher dwelt on those who had been residing in the area for at least five years. Regardless of interviewing even those who had been living in the study area for less than years, the objective that the researcher had was acquiring the current information concerning the usage or changes taking place on the land within the selected area of study.

Upon being asked about the years they had been practising farming in Mount Barker, Adelaide’, 42% said of ten years, 18% talked of between eight to ten years, 37% were between two to seven years while others had only practising farming activities in the area for less than one year.

Table 4: Duration of living in the study area

Figure 4: Line graph on the duration of living in the study area

Source: Primary data

Table 5: Duration of farming in Mount Barker, Adelaide

Figure 5: Bar graph on the duration of farming in Mount Barker, Adelaide

Source: Primary data

4.3. The changes in the cover or usage of land in the previous decade in Mount Barker, Adelaide

A bigger portion of the participants during the study; 96.3% concurred that had undergone notable changes regarding the cover of the land in the previous decade.  According to growth in the population has been the major change environmentally of the land in countries that are still developing, especially in the tropical regions Gumma et al. (2017).

Other causes as listed by scholars following the increase in population are the deforestation that results due to the increased usage of land Skog et al. (2016). A local administrator from Glenlea upon interrogation said the area and its surroundings at first were very much forested during the period of 1950s. He further concurred that during that time there was uniform vegetation cover in the area, unlike the present. To him believed that it is because of the actions of the human beings that have contributed towards deforestation in the area.

The survey thus sought to find out the impacts of the changes on the cover of the land in the study area. As a result of this, 79.6% of those interviewed concurred that changes on the cover of the land had been brought by the loss of the fertility of the soil. Another 16.7% mentioned the lack of rainfall as the cause of the change.

Table 6: Cause of change in land cover

Figure 6: Pie-chart on the cause of change in land cover

Source: Primary data

The participants were challenged about their awareness of changes that have occurred concerning the usage of land. 64.4% mentioned built-up regions, 15.1% talked of tree farming, 12.3% talked of non-farming activities while 5.5% said just a section of people is engaging in farming practices in comparison to the past.

Table 7: Changes that have taken on farming lands

Figure 7: Line graph on changes that have taken place on farmlands

Source: Primary data

The finding was that change from farming to non-farming related activities and the changes in the attitude from farmers were because of the encroachment of the farmlands or because of the ejection notifications. Hence, the above standing to subject the local farmers into the abject poverty in the future Manjunatha et al. (2019).

4.4. Factors leading to Urban Sprawling in Mount Barker, Adelaide

The study also carried investigation on the factors to urban sprawling in Mount Barker, Adelaide. Eventually, it was found out that the main cause behind sprawl is migration which is 94.9% as presented in table 8 Aliaâ et al. (2017). Many people believe that living in an urban setting answer every problem facing human beings and thus prompting them to stay in these environments in their bigger numbers. It is possible to sustain this belief so long as the conditions within the rural settings continue experiencing deteriorations Hatab (2019).

In many occasions, people who go to urban centres from the rural life normally do not find it easy in settling in near the city centres because of the higher costs of rental payments Martellozzo et al. (2018). As a result of this, such persons again resort to locating to the fringes that possibly may have cheap accommodation including plots. 64.5% of the participants stated that the cause behind the urban sprawl in Mount Barker is the higher costs associated with land in city area covered by Adelaide.

Table 8: Factors leading to urban sprawl in Mount Barker

Figure 8: Line graph on factors leading to urban sprawl in Mount Barker

Source: Primary data

The Estate Developers have to be responsible for the rapid sprawling in Mount Barker as established in the study. The acquisition of estates via the agencies is regarded as the speedy way of becoming a house owner in Australia. Just placing a deposit with a real estate agent, after reaching agreement leads to one owning the house in the area. The balance then is completed as instalments spread upon the agreed number of years. Also, was established that the patronage by people among the estates was indeed very high.

The property acquired from the estate was linked to the agencies as being safer in comparison to those got from private owners Dekolo et al. (2016). Mount Barker has been of late experiencing sporadic nature of estate development.  On the same note, the closeness of the area to Adelaide City has also been regarded as another reason behind the sporadic form of settling in the area. People, who are leading cool life devoid of noise and any form of social disturbance from the main city, are relocated to Mount Barker.

4.5. Hypothesis tests

Table 9 presents the comparative evaluation of the way urban sprawl has had negative effects on farmlands or related. The tests on the attitudes were done statistically to determine in case the urban sprawl has had negative impacts on the farmland or not (Kokate et al. 2018). The instances also take care of the variables such as the location of the firms, land acquisition means, education,  stakeholders offering security and the duration of stay among the respondents.

The Null Hypotheses (Ho) performed tests that urban sprawl has never harmed farmlands by taking care of the variables like the location of the farm, the land acquisition means, education, stakeholders offering livelihood safety and the duration of stay among the respondents (Wang, 2019).

Alternative Hypotheses (Ha) performed tests that urban sprawl has harmed farmlands by taking care of the variables like the location of the farm, land acquisition means, education, stakeholders offering livelihood safety and the duration of stay among the respondents. Concerning the location of the firm, people whose farms are situated within settlement can twice be affecting the sprawling impacts in comparison to the land belonging to the government.

4.6. A Binary Logistic Regression

Table 9: Binary logistic regression explaining the odds about the factors leading to urban sprawling to hurt the farmlands

Regarding the land acquisition means, urban sprawling has higher chances of affecting persons who got their respective farmlands via leas or rental in comparison to those had got via lawful purchasing (OR= 2.7, CI=0.29, 25.27) Narducci et an al. (2019). Contrastingly, persons who got land as gifts from their respective landlords, chiefs, inheritance or via working and sharing have minimal opportunities of being affected by the sprawling effects.

On top of this, the relationships between the stakeholders offering the livelihood safety and farmers where their respective lands are under the protection by the local administration of Mount Barker are 1.6 higher of being affected in comparison to those who lack livelihood safety. Not forgetting, farmers that have been living in the area for eight to ten years are two times more likely into witnessing the effects linked with the urban sprawl through their respective farmlands in comparison to those who have lived for not more than five years in the society.

Hence, judged by these scenarios, because the deduced p>0.05, H_a is agreed or admitted while H₀ is then dismissed or rejected (Graneheim et al. (2017). This implies that urban sprawl has had negative effects on farmlands regarding the variables like land acquisition means, stakeholders offering security, education, and location of the firm and duration of stay among the respondents.

4.7. The area’s pattern of rainfall

Upon challenging the respondents to categorize the pattern of rainfall in the selected area of study, 15% acknowledged that the yearly rainfall is less than 20%. The rest represented by 65% considered the pattern of rainfall as not being, low nor high.

Table 10: The yearly pattern of rainfall

Thus, based on table 9 above, it may be deduced that the pattern of rainfall in Mount Barker has declined in the previous decade, especially where farming practices are concerned. The decrease in the pattern of rainfall over the last ten years has had impacts on land use and its cover in the study area. Also, it is because the growth and development of crops including vegetation rely on rainfall Graneheim et al. (2017). The below pie-chart in figure further represents the information about the pattern of rainfall in Mount Barker

4.8. Reasons for the decline of food in Mount Barker

From the respondents, it was identified that rainfall that is not reliable is a major reason for the food decline that equated foe the 65% among the respondents are presented in the table below.  An officer from the forestry department concurred that the city has nearly lost its forest cover as a result of the careless cutting of trees for charcoal and timber. The officer also acknowledged that this had major impacts towards vegetation and possibly resulted in the decrement of the pattern of rainfall experienced in the area.

Concerning the role done by the department towards managing deforestation, the officer stated that they have little they are capable of doing towards managing the situation because the land is either owned by private persons, families or schools. Consequently, they choose what they see as befitting them from the lands. Also, she added that the unlawful chain users often carry their operations and thus making nearly impossible in monitoring their respective actions.

Figure 11: The vegetable growing activity taking place in Mount Barker

Source: Primary data

Table 11: Reason for the decline in food

Figure 11: Bar graph on reasons for the decline in rainfall

Source: Primary data

Following an interview done with an officer from the Agricultural Extension unit, he pointed out that increment in build-ups has indeed denied or taken a lot of lands meant for farming from farmers. A major aspect he saw as the causing intrigues are the acquiring of bigger pieces of land by those in charge of the development of estates, firms and persons who intend to use such lands in the future. The developments of these lands are yet to begin for farming practices because they are under protection from land guards.

Possibly, this may be linked with the fear concerning the future litigation on lands tracing their origins from temporal occupants and landlords who possible may present claims of ownership because of them having been in the region for a longer duration. Also, it was evidential that the attitude of people towards farming has experienced some changes.

The changes in the attitudes among people according to the extension officer are as a result of the confrontations from farmers and cases of land litigation in Mount Barker. On top of this, steady fall in the fertility of the soil because of deforestation, extensive cropping and sand winning also form part of the fall in the production among farmers as said by the respondents. Besides the heavy mechanization, other farmers such as the peasant ones are unable to access the capital-based fertilizers plus other aspects that may lead to improving the soil fertility. This has been the reason behind the low production being witnessed in the area.

4.9. The extent of the impacts on income as a result of urban sprawl

Based on the information got from the respondents regarding the yield loss, it affirmed that not every farmer subjected to the interview has encountered sprawling within their respective farms. Thirty per cent of the respondents have in a positive manner been affected concerning their earnings. Despite a bigger portion not affected in a negative manner during the moment of carrying out this interview, they were still optimistic of somehow being affected in the future.

Probably, this could be as a result of the land demands, city expansion rates in Adelaide and the peripheral regions. From the section of the respondents who acknowledged having been negatively affected, 5% mentioned their income as being more affected by the urban sprawl related activities.  Again it was found out that persons with less impact or nearly none stood at 51.8%. On top of this, the participants that there their earning had experienced average effects were 15.1% while those that had the effects being constituted stood at 28.1%.

Table 12: Urban sprawl effects on income

Figure 12: Column graph on urban sprawl effects on income

Source: Primary data

From table 11 above, it implies that the farmers experienced the effect in their respective income though the effect is weak to lead to gain or loss Gardner et al. (2017). Despite the demand for land remaining constant and the increase in population being sustainable, the farmlands then would continue experiencing decrement following the encroachment happening in Mount Barker, Adelaide.  Effects on the farmlands lead to the decrement in the output and eventually on the income got by the farmers and at last seeing the development of poverty effects among the farmers.

4.10. The food crop production against the system of land tenure

As a constituent of the objectives of assessing the way the system of land tenure has had impacts on farmers of food crops regarding the accessibility of land, the researcher challenged the respondents to show the means whereby their respective farmlands were got for farming use. The farmers who had lived in the area of study for more than ten years said that farmlands initially were got for free though the situation has changed at the moment. Eventually, it was found out that 40% of the lands were got via leasing or rentals from their respective owners.

The next category was those who got theirs via inheritance as shown in table 11 below who were mainly the natives in the area of the study. The research also found out farmers who are involved in work and sharing type of farming. In this regard, they constituted 17.5% among the respondents. As a result of this practice, farmers are indeed not paying for land but carry out cultivation practices of the desired crops. Eventually, the produce is distributed between the owner of the land and the farmer. At times, it may be dictated by the previous agreement the parties reached earlier.

Respondents who acknowledged of having got their land via rent or lease or as gifts at the time of the interview after being challenged to show the number of years they had been given land to use Gardner et al. (2017). Hence, it was found out that landholding towards farming is normally accorded shorter, medium- and longer-term durations. The shorter-term duration of rent is estimated to be two years and they represent close to 21.8% of the number of the respondents.

Similarly, it was established that farmers tend to be cultivating short durational crops like the cereals and the vegetables.  The medium-term range of leaseholds was between three and ten years. It became evidential from the study that the predominantly medium form of ownership or leasehold results into the land ownership. The medium mode of possessing land or the leasehold was represented by 64.7% of the whole respondents. Also, the frequently grown tuber food crop commodities are the cocoyam and cassava and times even mangoes.

The farmers in these cases who belong to the medium mode of ownership stated that they are at ease with the tenure-ship duration since there is a lot that stands to be produced during the timeframe. Taking into the consideration of the galloping characteristics of the land prices within the peripheries such as the Summit and Glenlea regions, chances are very high that years, where leasing of land has been done to a farmer, may decline in the coming five years. In the eventual occurrence of this, crops with longer duration of life-span would be less produced and possibly resulting in their scarcity in the future.

Consequently, this will lead to cases of food insecurity in the selected area for study. On top of this, persons who have been owning land for not less than two decades were categorized as longer duration occupants. The groups represented those who got land via inheritance, purchase or inheritance for more than twenty years. Similarly, they constitute the smaller percentage at 13.6% despite being regarded as the more secure regarding farming in comparison to the other ways of owning land in Mount Barker, Adelaide.

4.12. Possible ways of ensuring the protection of farmers of food crop from the urban sprawling

The study upon the solicitation of views plus the ideas from the participants concerning the urban sprawl, land use and food production including land tenure, farming security plus others inquired from the respondents their suggestion for ensuring the protection of crop farmers from the issue of urban sprawl. Close to 56.5% of the participants believed that the intervention from the government about the issue would have a lot of impacts positively in enhancing the lifestyle of farmers. An extension officer from Summit of Mount Barker was in strong support of this perspective and confined that due to the area more dominated with farming activities, then there is need to secure a land parcel for such actions.

This matches also good and fertile agricultural piece of land needs zooming for the agricultural purpose up to the less fertile ones Dekolo et al. (2016). Also, they had the suggestion that city expansions following the drastic urbanization need its channelling to the less fertile agricultural-based lands instead of the fertile lands. Similarly, there were suggestions from the respondents about intervention from the house owners. In this regard, the house owners should consider settling the disputes within the family so the tenant does not suffer.

Also, it was established that to a bigger extent, the status of land security has had more influence on the food crop production and food security within Mount Barker. 10% of the participants believed that farmers who would be severely affected as a result of the urban sprawl should be given compensation accordingly.