Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children

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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, also denoted as ADHD, is a chronic mental health disorder. It causes high-level hyperactive behavior or impulsive behaviors. Usually, it occurs in either small children, adolescents, or in adults. In this paper, I shall discuss this disorder in children.

To begin with, I will mention a few cases of the disorder. The disorder may be hereditary or acquired after birth. The disease is only inherited if either of the child’s parents had the disorder. Secondly, the other cause is a result of poor eating habits and the growth environment of the child. Children need to eat balanced diets in recommended amounts and grow in healthy environments. Failure to which, they may develop the condition. Lastly, children whose parents smoke are more likely to acquire the state than children whose parents do not smoke. The increase in possibility is higher for smoking mothers than dads.

The other issue I would like to discuss concerning ADHD is their prevention and treatment. The disorder is mainly treated using medication or therapy depending on how serious one is; sometimes, both are used. Those using medicine may attend classes on anger management, cognitive behavior, support groups, among many other courses. Those on medication use stimulants and anti-hypersensitive drugs. I have also been able to cover details on the effects of the conditions. These effects include the possibility of taking part in criminal offenses, slow communication, and learning. On criminal offenses, research proved that ADHD children have a higher rate of growth into criminals than the other healthy children without the condition.

Lastly, I have a series of annotation texts for my work. The annotation texts cover the parts I have mentioned above. It contains details on the definition, causes, effects, consequences, and treatment of the disorder.

Annotated Bibliography

Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder?. Psychological bulletin, 127(5), 571.

The paper covers several aspects of ADHD. The article describes DHD as the most researched, stock, and most controversial child clinical syndromes.

Thapar, A., Cooper, M., Eyre, O., & Langley, K. (2013). Practitioner review: what have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(1), 3-16.

This research investigated the leading causes of ADHD in children. The study concluded that among many other reasons, family adversity and child caregiving are the leading causes. However, the research does not cut out evidence that the family and psychosocial factors cause ADHD, but it says that the elements may modify its outcomes.

Coleman, D., Walker, J. S., Lee, J., Friesen, B. J., & Squire, P. N. (2009). Children’s beliefs about causes of childhood depression and ADHD: A study of stigmatization. Psychiatric Services, 60(7), 950-957.

The three researchers carried out their research by sampling children nationwide. They aimed at finding out the effects of stigmatization on mental health disorders ADHD included. In their conclusion, they concluded that the main impact is self-isolation and social distance. The research goes ahead to advise the need to address stigmatization against children with mental health problems.

Fletcher, J., & Wolfe, B. (2009). Long-term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. The journal of mental health policy and economics, 12(3), 119.

The article questions whether child mental health disorders like ADHD have an adverse long term effect on criminal activities. The piece links childhood ADHD to sub the following illegal activities. In conclusion, the paper connects children with ADHD between the age of 5-12 with criminal behavior than other individuals. They also conclude that the finding tends to vary depending on gender, age, race, and many different reasons.

Fletcher, J. M. (2014). The effects of childhood ADHD on adult labor market outcomes. Health economics, 23(2), 159-181.

The article focuses on examining the long term interactions between other highly prevalent childhood mental health conditions, such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and adult labor market outcomes. The article concluded that ADHD diagnosis in children decreases employment rate during adulthood and provides collaborative evidence that the condition increases the likelihood of social assistance.

Cubillo, A., Halari, R., Ecker, C., Giampietro, V., Taylor, E., & Rubia, K. (2010). Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of frontostriatal networks in adults with childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during motor inhibition and cognitive switching tasks. Journal of psychiatric research, 44(10), 629-639.

The study aims to prove a hypothesis that states that adults with no history of ADHD are likely to show more frontostriatal and temporoparietal brain dysfunctions than those previously observed in children and adolescents with ADHD. The paper then proves the hypothesis and encourages future researchers to discover why there is continuity in brain dysfunction between childhood and adulthood.

Hurtig, T., Ebeling, H., Taanila, A., Miettunen, J., Smalley, S. L., McGOUGH, J. J., … & Moilanen, I. K. (2007). ADHD symptoms and subtypes: the relationship between childhood and adolescent symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(12), 1605-1613.

The research aims at studying the symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents. The research done analyzed behavioral problems and parental advice of when the condition began and how. In conclusion, the endorsement of specific inattentive symptoms proved to be the most common symptom. Depression and oppositional defiant disorder are the other symptoms.

Hoseini, B. L., Ajilian, M., TAGHIZADE, M. H., Khademi, G., & Saeidi, M. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children: a short review and literature.

The article is the review literature. The literature aims at reviewing the symptoms of ADHD. In conclusion, the symptoms are divided into three. The categories are Hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattentiveness. Each group then has different symptoms.

Halperin, J. M., Bédard, A. C. V., & Curchack-Lichtin, J. T. (2012). Preventive interventions for ADHD: a neurodevelopmental perspective. Neurotherapeutics, 9(3), 531-541.

The research aimed at finding out if physical exercises can help prevent the diagnosis of ADHD in children. The study then aims at finding out why it needs to introduce the practice to preschools. In conclusion, the research confirmed their hypothesis. Physical exercise for children helps prevent the disorder.

Mikolajczyk, R., Horn, J., Schmedt, N., Langner, I., Lindemann, C., & Garbe, E. (2015). Injury prevention by medication among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case-only study. JAMA pediatrics, 169(4), 391-395.

The case study aims at determining whether using methylphenidate hydrochloride will reduce the risk of injuries among children with ADHD. The research relied on the German Pharmacoepidemiological Research Database. In conclusion, the medication reduced up to 34% of injuries in children with ADHD conditions.

Pastor, P. N., & Reuben, C. A. (2002). Attention Deficit Disorder and Learning Disability: United States, 1997-98. Vital Health and Statistics. Data from the National Health Interview Survey. For full text: http://www. cdc. gov/nchs/data/series/sr_10/sr10_206. pdf..

The report presents National estimates of the children diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The story is made from views from the National Health Survey (NHIS). In their conclusion, in 1997 to 1998, over 2.6 million children below the age of 12 were reported to have ADHD. However, these children were at a lower cost of ending up in Special schools compared to those with a Learning Disability (LD).

Pastor, P. N., & Reuben, C. A. (2008). Diagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disability: United States, 2004-2006. Data from the National Health Interview Survey. Vital and Health Statistics. Series 10, Number 237. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333.

The research aims at investigating the effect of education and healthcare services on children with health conditions like ADHD. The report uses data from the National Health Survey (NHIS). In conclusion, the research proves that children with ADHD have more chances of having several encounters with mental health professionals, unlike children without the condition.

Van Cauwenberge, V., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Hoppenbrouwers, K., Van Leeuwen, K., & Wiersema, J. R. (2017). Regulation of emotion in ADHD: can children with ADHD override the natural tendency to approach positive and avoid negative pictures?. Journal of Neural Transmission, 124(3), 397-406.

The research aims to maintain cognitive performance in the context of interfering irrelevant emotional stimuli, and results also depend on general cognitive control abilities. The sample was collected in using the random sampling method. In conclusion, they state that current findings may not generalize to other samples with ADHD. Hence replication studies are warranted.

Gillies, D., Sinn, J. K., Lad, S. S., Leach, M. J., & Ross, M. J. (2012). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (7).

The research aims at comparing the efficiency of polyunsaturated fatty acids to other forms of treatment of the symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents. The study concluded that there is little evidence that polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation provides benefits for the symptoms of ADHD in children.

Zhu, J. L., Olsen, J., Liew, Z., Li, J., Niclasen, J., & Obel, C. (2014). Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort. Pediatrics, 134(2), e382-e388.

The research aims at proving the hypothesis that relates to smoking parents during pregnancy with ADHD in their born children. The study covered breastfeeding parents too. In conclusion, the research shows that maternal and paternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with an elevated risk of ADHD defined by hospital diagnosis.

Observations

I have observed that ADHD is a chronic disorder. The disorder is common in children. The disease is also painful to realize when its sighs start to show. It is difficult because each category of disorder has its characteristics. Therefore, parents are supposed to stay close to their children to look out for any symptoms of the disease and take them for medication immediately.

I have also observed that mothers with a smoking habit risk their children from having this chronic disorder. The disorder is not easy to treat but easy to acquire. Fathers are less likely to make their children have this disorder because, during pregnancy, the child is in the mothers, and not the father’s womb.

Similarly, I have also observed that involving your children in physical exercise and providing them a pleasant environment for growth, with all the basics they need, will prevent children from getting the disorder. Therefore, parents should be on the lookout to ensure that their children are active in their activities and stay healthy and stress-free. Children with this disorder may also incorporate these exercises into their daily medication. Children should also be watched keenly for depression. Depression may result from this condition. If our children are secluded from the others for long, they get stigmatized and eventually get depressed.

References

Coleman, D., Walker, J. S., Lee, J., Friesen, B. J., & Squire, P. N. (2009). Children’s beliefs about causes of childhood depression and ADHD: A study of stigmatization. Psychiatric Services, 60(7), 950-957.

Cubillo, A., Halari, R., Ecker, C., Giampietro, V., Taylor, E., & Rubia, K. (2010). Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of fronto-striatal networks in adults with childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during tasks of motor inhibition and cognitive switching. Journal of psychiatric research, 44(10), 629-639.

Fletcher, J. M. (2014). The effects of childhood ADHD on adult labor market outcomes. Health economics, 23(2), 159-181.

Fletcher, J., & Wolfe, B. (2009). Long-term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. The journal of mental health policy and economics, 12(3), 119.

Hoseini, B. L., Ajilian, M., TAGHIZADE, M. H., Khademi, G., & Saeidi, M. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children: a short review and literature.

Hurtig, T., Ebeling, H., Taanila, A., Miettunen, J., Smalley, S. L., McGOUGH, J. J., … & Moilanen, I. K. (2007). ADHD symptoms and subtypes: relationship between childhood and adolescent symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(12), 1605-1613.

Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder?. Psychological bulletin, 127(5), 571.

Schoenfelder, E. N., & Kollins, S. H. (2016). Topical review: ADHD and health-risk behaviors: toward prevention and health promotion. Journal of pediatric psychology, 41(7), 735-740.

Thapar, A., Cooper, M., Eyre, O., & Langley, K. (2013). Practitioner review: what have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(1), 3-16.

Zhu, J. L., Olsen, J., Liew, Z., Li, J., Niclasen, J., & Obel, C. (2014). Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort. Pediatrics, 134(2), e382-e388.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children

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