Byzantine Empire
Introduction
Byzantine Empire was a division of small parts which were; Sinope Nikaia and Trapezunt in Asia Minor and in Balkan was Epirus and Thessalia. 60 years later they were able to reconquest the empire but it went through a fatal wound. Jumping on to candidates that were after the throne; the one who was seek help of Osman Emirate and handed the main fortress of Gallipoli (Gelibolu) on the sides of Europeans located in Marmara Sea. 95 years later, Byzantine Empire went looking for help from Pope who did made a setting of ant inquisitor to Byzantine Empire and wanted to start the introduction of Western Catholic Christianity by force. Orthodox clergy and the individuals of this empire stood firm for their Turkish religion instead of burning bonfire of the heretics. Looking on the Islam side; the warriors known as the Ghazis from the nation of Turkish went to conquer Byzantine. Arabs were from independent nations and they were not able to bring strength to the Osman army. Tartars at one point defeated Turk in 1402 at Ankara and took Sultan himself. Army of the Turkish were able to navigate smoothly and quickly than the European Knights as they were more disciplined. Other groups that participated; regent of Hungary Hunyadi got betrayed in 1448 by the Serbs. He resigned and struggled with fellow Hungarian magnates. He was unable to get an army and be on rescue for Constantinople. Russia was getting close to unification. Moscow’s grand prince was married to the last emperor’s daughter. May Greek Monk moved to Moscow. The title of Tsar <=Caesar=Emperor was taken by the Grand Prince and the state of Moscow started to have its name from him as the Third Rome.
Territorial Invasions
To come to an understanding of how the conquest took place and in what places in the Byzantine Empire, its impacts both positive and negative, there has to be an understanding of the forces that existed. There was the Muslim forces, Roman forces, Persian forces, Ethiopian forces, and Berber forces, Turks, Visigoths and the Franks.
Conquest of the Levant: 634-641
It is also known as Muslim/Arab conquest of the Levant and it took place in the initial half of the 7th Century. The conquest took place in a place known as Shaam or Levant. It was later came to be named the Islamic Province of Bilad al-Sham and it became part of conquests of Islam. Muslim Arab forces had made their firt appearance before the death of Prophet Muhammad along the southern borders during the 632. In 629, Battle of Mu’tah began. The actual conquest began in 634 and the successors were Umar ibn Khattab and Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr, and the most significant military leader and commander was Khalid ibn al-Walid. There was the conquest of Syria and this was under Caliph Umar and it led to several conquests within Syria. It was followed by reign of ‘Uthman Caliph, then administration led by Rashidun Caliphate and finally the rising of the Umayyad.
Conquest of Egypt: 639-642
Also known as Muslim conquest of Egypt. Initializers were the Arabs during 639-642 AD and the leader was Rashidun Caliphate. Its ending was long period centuries of Byzantine or Roman reign that began in 30 BC over the nation Egypt. The rule of Byzantine Empire was at state because of Egypt being conquered. Egypt was occupied and conquered for close to one decade in 618-629 by Sassanid Empire. This was before its recovery by Heraclius who was Byzantine Emperor. 10 years after Egypt was recovered by Heraclius, Caliphate took Egypt due to the exhaustion of Byzantine Empire. When it reached mid-630s, Byzantine Empire has lost Ghassanid and Levant allies based in Arabia to Caliphate. Losing the most prosperous province of Byzantine; Egypt, the empire got weak. Weakness of the empire led to increase in loss of the territories for the period and in centuries to come.
Byzantine Empire under the Reign of Heraclian Dynasty
Ruling of this empire under Heraclius was between 610 and 711. The rulers did preside over a time of cataclysmic events. These events acted as a watershed in the history of Byzantine Empire and also globally. The dynasty was named after Heraclius the young who did over threw Phocas and was made emperor. During the next decade, the eastern provinces of the empire were conquered. After an exhausting and long struggle, Persians were defeated and the empire was restored and shortly after, there was an eruption of Muslim conquest. The successors did struggle to bring Arab into containment but this lead to the loss of North Africa and Levant. Between 674 and 678, a large and great army of Arabs took over Constantinople. Theme system was established and minor Asia was retained. Eastern side was stabilized from both sides under the reign of Tiberius III and Justinian II.
Theme System and First Arab Siege of Constantinople (674-678)
Repulsing of the Arab fleet was by the use of Greek fire and a truce of thirty years was signed by the Umayyad Caliphate and the empire. Raids done by Anatolian took place and it accelerated classical urban culture demise. City inhabitants were forced to refortify or relocate to the next fortresses. The Constantinople led to a drop in inhabitants from 500,000 to 40,000-70,000. And just as the other urban areas, it became partly ruralized. In 618, the entire city lost shipments of free grain. Due to this theme developed where minor Asia was divided to provinces under civil authority. When it came to the 7th century, there was a change on the imperial governance. Its reconstruction led to breaking of Mediterranean Roman and Byzantine Empire is seen to be a successor state and not a Roman empire.
Late Heraclian Dynasty
Large numbers of troops were withdrawn from Balkand to take care of Persian. Arabs on the other hand did open an expansion into Peninsula of Slavic individuals. Multiple cities in Asia Minor did shrink to small fortified places of settlements. Bulgars were forced to move to the south of Danube during the 670s when Khazars arrived. Byzantine force were defeated in 680 and were forced to disperse these settlements. In 681, new Bulgarian Nation took over sovereignty and the Slavic tribes were recognized as Byzantine Rule. In 687-688, expedition was led by Justinian II against Bulgarians and Slavs. There were important gains due to the fact that he had to fight his way through Thrace to get to Macedonia. This offers a demonstration of the power loss degree of Byzantine in Balkans. Justinian II was driven away from power in 695, in 705 he came back with armies and regained his throne and his final overthrowing was in 711. This marked the end of Heraclian dynasty.
Isaurian Dynasty and Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718)
Launching of Siege of Constantinople was in 717 led by Umayyad Caliphate and it only lasted for one year. there was a combination of Leo III the Isaurin and he was a military genius, Greek Fire used by Byzantine, Cold winter in 717-718 and the diplomacy of Byzantine with the Tervel of Bulgaria; Khan led to the winning of Byzantine Empire. In 714, in the Battle of Akroinon took place and it was a major victory for Byzantine. They destroyed army of Umayyad again. In 746, a Battle of Keramia took place and Byzantine won again against Umayyad Fleet. Germanikeia was captured by Constantine V when he invaded Syria. After several military defeats on the Caliphate fronts, there was internal stability and this led to the end of Umayyad Expansion.
Religious Dispute over Iconoclasm/Byzantine Iconoclasm
During the 8th and 9th century, the empire had controversies and divisions of religions over iconoclasm. During this century, this was the major political issue. In 730, under the rule of Constantine and Leo, religious imagery were banned and revolves started in the empire by iconodules. In 787, Irene the Empress said the icons could be venerated and should not be worshipped. In the beginning of 9th century, there was reintroduction of iconoclasm policy by Leo V. in 843, Theodora the Empress with the help pf Patriarch Methodius did a restoration of the veneration of the icons. Iconoclasm played a major role in the further alienation from west to east, and it was worse during Photian Schism. This was when Pope Nicholas I made a challenge on the elevation of Photios to what was called Patriarchate.
Effects on Byzantine Empire Resulting from Islamic Invasions
The significance are positive and negative and it will be looked into interns of Diplomacy, science, medicine and law, religion, art and literature, music, cuisine, flags and insignia, language, recreation and economy.
Diplomacy
Byzantine diplomacy includes the methods, ideals, principles, mechanism techniques which the Byzantine Empire was espoused to. They used it so as to negotiate with the other states and help in the promotion of foreign policy goals. According to Dimitri Obolensky, preservation of the civilization in entire Eastern Europe was because of the resourcefulness and skills of diplomacy of Byzantine Empire. Up to date this was the remaining contribution of Byzantium to the Europe History and that of Middle East.
Science, Medicine and Law
It played a significant role in transforming classic knowledge to renaissance Italy and Islamic world. It also led to transforming of renaissance Italy from Islamic science. It was rich in historiographical traditions that was under presentation from ancient knowledge. On law, it wa s continuation of Roman Law. The most significant law was Ecloga that was delivered by Leo III. Laws was to establish a regulation outside cities. Byzantine medicine includes all medical practices that took place from 400 AD to 1453 AD within Byzantine Empire. They had records and technical drawings that had diagnostic explanations. There was the introduction of hospitals among other medicine revolutions.
Religion
Byzantine Empire was said to be under the ruling f God through the elected Emperor, this made it a theocracy empire. Some scholars argue that the empire was a theocracy looking in the side of ideals and Christian values. They say that these were the foundations of the political goals and political ideals of the Byzantine Empire. The empire did inherit most of the routines and things that took place in the Christian Church. There was therefore a great bond between the empire and the Christian or the roman church. The empire gained most of its religious traits from the Roman Church.
Art and Literature
Byzantine literature is under the Greek literature and was in the middle ages. Some of its characteristics were on Greek, Roman, Christian and Oriental. Painting illuminated manuscripts and took place during early periods on wood panels. Art was prestigious and was famous in Western Europe and its influence continued till the near end of medieval art. The styles persisted through 12th century and it influenced art during Italian renaissance. In an approximation of two to three thousand volume, byzantine literature made it. Among these are 330 secular poetry, science, history and pseudo-science. Beginning of 12th century, there was introduction of liturgical books, theology, sermons poetry and devotional books.
Music
Byzantine music originally included hymns and songs that were composed to texts of Greeks for ceremonies, festivals, and liturgical music. In today’s world, forms of byzantine music are seen, this is because dissimilar tradition of orthodox up to date identify themselves with heritage of byzantine music. After the fall of Constantinople, byzantine music did not perish, the traditions carried on even during the Ottoman conquest that took place in 1453. All the religious chant that took place had their historical roots at the music art practices in Byzantine Empire. The music is revolutionized in the modern world but is still has a touch of Byzantine past music.
Cuisine
Cuisine of Byzantine was due to the merging of roman and Greek gastronomy. The advancement of Byzantine Empire and expansion of trade led to introduction of new vegetables, sugar and spices to Greece. There was experimentation of foods by the combination of different foods hence creating two different styles during the process. They were Eastern Aegean and the Asia Minor. It consisted of byzantine cuisine which were supplemented by trade items. The style of leaner was initially on culture of the local Greek. The consumption of diet and drinks did vary from one class to another.
Flags and Insignia
For most history of the Byzantine Empire, they had no knowledge on or usage of heraldry. A number of large families did use specific symbols for their identity. Some examples of these symbols include; cross, Theotokos, and seals. For military purposes, there was using of shields, banners and labarum. Lower and middle aristocratic families in the Byzantine Empire began using heraldry. Some of the imperial insignia were Single-headed eagle and double-headed eagle. Single-headed eagle began in 711 to 713. Double-headed eagle will not be focused much on this research as it came later after many centuries and it took place in 12th century and 13th century. The usage of Christ image and cross, Virgin Mary and other saints became part of official seals. They were categorized as personal emblems and not family emblems.
Language
Byzantine language/Greek is also known as medieval Greek and it was said to be stages between classical antiquity lasted in 5th to 6th century and ending of middle ages. It was dates Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople. From the beginning of 7th century, Greek language was the form of communication in the government and when it came to administration n of Byzantine Empire. Medieval Greek traces its way back to early 330 AF or 295 AD. It is a link that existed between Modern Greek and Koine Greek, but it found its strong influence from Attic Greek. Attic Greek is a New Testament language and liturgical language of Greek Orthodox Church.
Recreation
Byzantine had a game known as Backgammon in English and is still popular up to date but called Tavli in Greece. The nobles in this empire took part in horsemanship and to be specific Tzykanion widely known as polo. The origin of this game was Sassanid in Persia. Other cities that had this game was Athens, Sparta and Ephesus. It was a clear indication of urban aristocracy thriving. The introduction of this game in West was done by Crusaders and it helped in taste development during the reign of Manuel I Komnenos who was an emperor.
Economy
The economy of Byzantine was one of the most robust along Mediterranean in many centuries. Trade network extended across Eurasia and some part of North Africa. It was until the 7th century when Arabs appeared, the Roman Empire was still leading in the field of economy and it was a major contributor to the globe. After the conquest done by Arabs, the empire lost its fortunes and it declined in economy leading to stagnation. Beginning of 10th century and 12th century, Byzantine Empire got attention from travelers due to its accumulation of wealth. Late Byzantine Empire state did not gain control of wither domestic economies of foreign economies forces.
Conclusion
To conclude, Byzantine Empire witnessed reversing of many fortunes but yet the modern byzantine continue to disagree with the significance of changes brought out of the empire in history. The time Byzantine Empire lasted has always been a way of underestimating change. Some historians have made research and concluded that between 10th centuries and 12th centuries, it is when the empire became poor. Some argue that the fall of the empire was due to the fall of military in the 7th century. The various conquest that took place in the empire, was led by Arabs and each conquest led to weakening of the empire. The Islamic invasions as discussed above is seen to have brought adverse effects on Byzantine Empire. Some are positive effects while other are negative effects. It is in 626-751 that changes took place on the empire leading to its defeat and the rising of roman church that took over the empire. The significance of Islamic conquests in 8th and 7th century was classified as one of the most important events took place in world history. There was creation of new civilization; Arabized and Islamicized Middle East. Islam became a dominant religion and the synthesis of roman, Arab and Persian were elements that brought out new methods and styles of architecture and art that emerged in the Middle East.