classroom management
Before continuing further, it is essential to have a holistic conceptualisation of the term classroom management. Brophy (1996) defines classroom management as the activity plans that teachers took in creating and maintaining a learning environment which is conducive for the successful instruction implementation. Similarly, Doyle (1986) affirmed that the management of the classroom is a pre-requisite for providing instruction whereby they argue that it is an action carried out by the teachers so that the teaching process can commence. On the other hand, Marzano (2003) explained that classroom management involves for significant areas that include establishment and reinforcement of rules and procedures, undertaking disciplinary actions, maintenance of teacher-learner relationships, and the maintenance of an appropriate mental approach in the management of the learning environment. Further, Crookes (2003) also highlighted that classroom management is critical as it ensures that there is an order in the classroom, allowing learning to take place. Further, they argued that without classroom management, any form of superficial disorder which manifests may not necessarily prevent instruction or learning but will support it. Therefore, the previous conceptualisation of classroom management emphasized the need to develop the appropriate and conducive atmosphere in the classroom, which enables teaching and as a result, allows for an optimal learning environment.
2.3 Classroom Management in General Education Perspective
Research on classroom management in foreign language education appears to be missing from the literature on classroom management in general knowledge. For instance, reviewing the contents of ‘Handbook of Classroom Management, there is no single chapter focusing on the issues of managing classroom from language education perspectives (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Rahimi and Hosseini (2012) argue that research on the topics related to classroom discipline or behaviours in language acquisition has been neglected. However, it could also be the case that classroom management is perceived to be inherently similar in all the subject matter areas and thus the neglect of the unique and distinctive attributes of classroom management within the specific content areas.
Historically, the review of research within classroom management is varied over periods and commences with an emphasis in habit formulation while less relevance and focus is given on such aspects of self-regulation and elements of cooperative learning within the early 1900s (Brophy, 2006). Sullivan et al., (2014) holds that there is little research focusing on classroom management until the 1950s were the concerns increased on having rules and procedures for students and helping them in achieving appropriate levels of self-regulation and self-control. Further, Brophy (2006) argues that there was a call for a balance between the laissez-faire and authorities approaches in classroom management in the 1950s. Sariçoban (2010) reports that initially, the balance action was derived from behavioural and ecological research. Accordingly, behavioural research recommended measures such as increasing the desired behaviour of students through token and reward reinforcement programs, use of praise and approval and developing clear rules and directions (Brophy, 2006).
Further, behavioural studies also recommended procedures that led to a decrease in considered behaviour such as self-reprimands, punishment, among others (Macías, 2018).
On the other hand, ecological studies maintenance that classrooms were environment context and as such the studies advocated for taking into consideration the benefits and constraints from teachers, peers and other human actors and not limiting it to the physical attributes of the classroom (Brophy, 2006). Macías (2018) points out that the research on classroom management moved from reinforcing good behaviour to engage in learning activities, from reactive to proactive management and from unilateral teacher control to learners’ exercising self-control and regulation. Sariçoban (2010) indicates that classroom management is preventative and techniques implemented are mainly focused on creating a conducive learning environment rather than on a focus on behaviour management. However, as illustrated by Kang (2013), the instructional and behaviour management dimensions of class management are both crucial in ensuring that an optimal learning environment is created. Therefore, it is essential to have a holistic view of the role played by classroom management and provide an understanding of practical techniques applied in the classrooms.
2.5 Theoretical Review of Second Language Acquisition
Understanding classroom management issues in ESL education calls for an investigation of the theoretical approaches as well as teaching methods which have characterised ESL learning and teaching. Thus, this section makes a brief reference to these approaches as well as techniques in their attempts to understand their impact on classroom management.
Researchers within second language acquisition have mainly been guided by various theoretical approaches in the study of first language acquisition. Bohannon and Bonvillian (2008) have provided a rich description of the primary methods used in second language acquisition, and these include behavioural, interactionist and linguistic methods. Behavioural approaches focus on the observable as well as measurable elements of language behaviour whereby the language development is considered to link to the various stimuli in the environment to the internal responses and how these internal responses affect overt verbal behaviour. According to the behavioural approach, teachers perceive students are a possessive recipient of the pressures in the environment (Macías, 2018). In contrast to this, linguistic approaches emphasize the language, which follows a structure or grammar (Bohannon & Bonvillian, 2008). However, the proponent argues that there exists a set of universal grammar rules where while individuals have a natural endowment to learn a second language through testing their evolving grammars against the information provided by the environment (Macías, 2018). Finally, the interactionists’ approaches make the assumption that many factors such as social, biological, cognitive and linguistic factors interact and modify them thus affecting the course that the language acquisition and development takes. Macías (2018) indicates that the interactionist approaches are categorised not two categories; cognitive interactionist and the social interactionist approaches. Cognitive interactionist perceive language to merging from advances made by individuals as their cognitive development. On the other hand, the social interactionists perceive language development to be part of orderly, complex and interactive process whereby socialisation helps in language acquisition and the acquisition of the language results to more improved and structured social interaction (Bohannon & BonVillian, 2008). Therefore, language acquisition is understood based on the differing approaches and this likely affects the behaviour and management that a teacher uses in the classroom. For instance, the social interactionist approach in an ESL is likely to involve activities such as group work, role play among others with the students interacting and advancing their language proficiencies.
There are three major models of teaching and these include transmission, exploration and social constructivism. Teaching when considered as a transmission involves the characterisation of teaching control of the learning context in regards to the teachers putting emphasis on the such elements as seating arrangement for instance the students being seated while facing
the teachers, structures, learning rotes, drills as well as engaging in question and answer practices (Wright, 2005). Further, exploration teaching involves learner- centred teaching with the teacher’s focus on assessing the learners directing the learning process and helping them adopt appropriate learning experiences (Macías, 2018). Wright (2005) refers to the learning experience that is directed by the student arguing that they are bale to discover new knowledge and skills, formulate their own understanding and derive their individuals meaning from the learning process.
Social constructivism is focused on emphasizing on the role of social contexts t the learning and collaborative work undertaken by students in the learning process (Cooper et al., 2018). These approaches and modes have provided a foundation for numerous methods and approaches in ESL teaching as well as other language acquisition areas (Marcias, 2018). Research indicates that new language leaning approaches affect the approaches of class management used as each aligns with different learning activities and interaction in the classroom (Cooper et al., 2018). Further, research indicates that the evolution of teaching from teacher-centered of student-centered has been advocated by practitioners and researchers globally (Scrivener, 2012; Marcias, 2018). Interestingly, they have also affected elements such as the role of the leaners and the teachers in the classroom, the interactions patterns adopted as well as the target language applied (Macías, & Sánchez, 2015). Sariçoban (2010) holds that the link between teaching approaches and effective classroom management in language education has become highly critical. There has been a call for effective class management practices and the need to determine what can be concluded as best practice on the unique ESL learning environment. This requires an understanding of the unique attributes and characteristics of the ESL classroom calling for the identification of techniques that align to teaching English to students speaking other languages.