Conflict Theory
The nature of crime has been contentious for several years. Several stakeholders are always employed to investigate the development and occurrence of crime in different parts of the world. Criminology uses theory to come up with explanations as to why crime exists and the process through which crime develops among individuals. The theory is defined differently depending on the circumstance at hand, and there are contentious definitions. The general definition of theory in everyday use is that theory involves a set of untested principles that try to explain phenomena without evidential backing. However, theory in scientific aspects such as criminology involves a set of tested and substantiated explanation for the occurrence and existence of various phenomena such as crime. Criminology, on the other side, involves the study of nature, occurrence, development, and the response to crime. Generally, criminology uses scientific theories to address the issues surrounding crime. Criminology is set at various theories, such as the theory of conflict by Austin Turk, who explained the emergence of two classes of people in the society who are related by exploitation.
Austin Turk has contributed immensely to the field of criminology by developing his idea of conflict theory. According to Turk, the society is formed by two groups of people who have different abilities. The first group uses the available resources to acquire power and wealth that is used to exploit people from the other class in a bid to attain more power and wealth (Tunnell, 2017). The conflict theory is based on the belief that the systems in various societies are supported by capitalist ideologies where the elite continue to enjoy their stay in power while the less privileged remain oppressed in the long run. Generally, criminology is based on the development and implementation of theories by various theories, and Austin Turk is one of the theorists who have contributed immensely towards making the field efficient.
Biography
The theory of conflict has been advocated for by Austin Turk, who lived between 1934 and 2014. Austin Turk believed in the existence of a powerful group of people in the society who used the resources within their reach to oppress other people in society. According to Turk, the desires to control the society were essential in the creation of an imbalance where one group wanted to benefit from the misfortunes of the other group. The conflict theory, as presented by Turk, specifies that crime is a way used by nature and the oppressed to create a balance in society. Therefore, the conflict theory is employed in criminology to understand the association between crime and the imbalance caused by the desires of some individuals to control the society using the available resources. Moreover, the conflict theory is founded on the capitalist setting where people are individualistic and are always seeking to gain more wealth without considering the impact on other people.
A capitalist society is set in a way that the primary goal in life for most people in life is to gain as much wealth as possible. The desire to accumulate wealth creates frequent conflicts with people struggling to out-power each other in the move to acquire more wealth (Grant, 2017). Austin Turk believes that the conflicts that emerge due to the capitalist settings are responsible for the increasing crime rate. The theory developed by Austin Turk is based on the belief that capitalist societies allow activities that cause an imbalance of power, leading to frequent conflicts. Also, Austin Turk explained that law comes out as a strategy that some people use to acquire resources that promote their interests against the interests of other people in the same society. Generally, the works of Austin Turk were in line with the ideologies of Karl Marx, who paid significant attention to the creation of conflict criminology. Moreover, Austin Turk lived at a time when the world was split between capitalism and communism. Generally, his life experience was founded in a capitalist setting, and therefore, his theories were founded on capitalism. Moreover, Austin Turk did not change his position on conflict until his death.
The life of Austin Turk was founded in a capitalist setting where power was trusted with a few individuals who, in turn, misused the power for personal gain. The emergence of conflict due to power imbalance was treated by coming up with the law. Austin Turk was also brought up in institutions that had embraced the spirit of capitalism and supported the desires of individuals who took advantage of the available resources to exploit other people. The elite enjoys the support of institutions on the power imbalance to remain in power while the oppressed remain oppressed. According to Austin Turk, the oppressed turn to crime in a bid to balance power as well as to improve their position in the societal class. In a bid to curb the criminal activities, authorities such as the police, judges, and prosecutors attempt to implement the law to deal with people who are attempting to bridge the gap caused by a power imbalance. Generally, Austin Turk viewed the authorities as to the decision-makers who decided the direction of power. Besides, the authorities use the available resources to manipulate the judicial systems to ensure that power is maintained b some individuals. Therefore, crime continues since the society does not accept to deal with the loopholes in the systems. Moreover, the articles by Turk were based on the development of conflict and eventual crime.
Theoretical Contribution
Austin Turk employed significant time in the writing of articles about the development of the conflict. Two of the articles by Austin Turk are the “Criminality and Legal Order” and “Political criminality: The defiance and defense of authority” that he wrote between 1969 and 1982. In “Criminality and Legal Order,” Turk explains the significance of laws in capitalist societies. According to Turk, the norms that are developed according to cultural and social systems are essential in determining when and how crimes occur. Generally, Turk believes that the occurrence of conflicts depends on the consistency of cultural and social systems since the development of consistent norms creates an authority-subject relationship. Also, the relationship between authorities and the subjects’ impacts the way subjects behave as well as the way the subjects believe in the maintenance of criminal activities. The claim by Turk is evident in his other article, “Political criminality: The defiance and defense of authority” of 1982.
The article “Political criminality: The defiance and defense of authority” continues to show Turk’s position on the development of crime. Turk shows the understanding that the basis of every type of crime is in the breaking of a law. The existence of law comes as a result of capitalism, and Turk shows that the existence of law is a method of ensuring that authorities have a strategy to continue oppressing the less powerful. Besides, the existence of law is a method of justifying power imbalance. According to Turk, crime occurs when a law is broken, and thus crime would not occur if a law was not placed in place. However, Turk does not aim to show that lawlessness should be chosen as the reason behind the development of crime. Instead, Turk believes that the development of law should be aimed at solving the challenges caused by a power imbalance, and the society should not allow the emergence of power imbalance. Also, Turk includes the political aspect in his 1982 article to explain the occurrence of crime. Generally, the article is essential in the shaping of criminology as a method of explaining the development of crime. Moreover, Turk explains the association between authority-subject relationships and conflicts.
Moreover, Austin Turk argues that the relationship between authorities and subjects in capitalist societies plays a significant role in the existence of conflicts. In the “Criminality and Legal Order” article of 1969, Turk presents four general factors that determine the level of conflicts in a society. According to Turk, the factors that he presented have the different potential of affecting the level of conflict in the societies. The first situation is whereby a strict adherence to laws is ensured for both the subjects and the authorities. Secondly, the laws may be created only for the subjects while the authorities enjoy a lawless system. Thirdly, another situation exists where the laws are made only for the authorities and not the subjects. Finally, Turk expressed the existence of a situation where the adherence to laws is done b neither the subjects nor the authorities. The difference in the potential of the four situations forms a more significant part of the article by Turk, and he goes on to explain the association between the situations and the occurrence of conflicts.
Moreover, Turk goes on to explain the impact of the various situations on the occurrence of conflicts in capitalist societies. According to Turk, the situations that mean a congruence of cultural and social norms among the authorities tend to witness a high level of conflict. Generally, authorities are less tolerant of differences compared to the subjects. The intolerance of the authorities is sufficient evidence to show how the societies are in a risk of suffering from the selfishness of authorities. Besides, the authorities are not answerable and use their positions to maintain the power imbalance that is the source of conflicts. However, the article shows how authorities are quick to develop laws that are aimed at curbing rampant breaking of law: “Flagrant, persistent disregard for the law will, nevertheless, force authorities to act to demonstrate that they are still in charge, that they are still able to assert their will against resistance in showdown” (Turk, 1969, p. 64). Generally, Turk is confident that the occurrence of conflicts is a result of the desire b authorities to exert absolute control over the subjects. Moreover, the argument by Turk on the conflict theory continues in his 1982 article.
Turk’s article of 1982 continues to bring to light the causes that lead to conflict in a capitalist society. The 1982 article involves the inclusion of the political aspect of the conflict. The involvement of politics in the conflict sociology brings in the idea of modern criminology in the understanding of crime and conflict. According to Turk, the engagement in politics subjects an individual in the middle of a conflict. Turk believes that politics places an individual at a position where they have access to resources, and hence power is given to them. Politicians always have the power to control society by influencing people to behave in a particular way. Besides, politics are based on the ability of an individual to grow powerful and popular among the people. When power and popularity come to the possession of an individual, the class definition changes as well, and a conflict is more likely to occur when the subjects in the society attempt to alienate themselves from the ideologies of the politicians. Therefore, the introduction of politics in the study of conflicts is a modern method of understanding criminology. Besides, the article was published later than the 1969 article that did not include politics in the discussion concerning conflicts. Moreover, the 1969 article by Turk focused its attention on organization and sophistication.
Turk did not run out of ideas in his definition of the reasons behind the occurrence of conflicts. In the 1969 article, Turk brings out the idea of organization and sophistication. According to Turk, the organization is defined according to the social complexity of a system of relationships that are based on a pattern of behaviors. Conflicts come up when the behavioral patterns are not addressed in an efficient way, and the authorities end up conflicting with the subjects. Generally, an organization comes out in the way the authorities prepare themselves in a way to control the subjects. On the other side, the subjects are always less organized; thus the subjects continue to get oppressed. However, some subjects are more organized compared to the authorities and are not easily compromised. Besides, the authorities depend on the strength of the opposition from the subjects to determine the level of control to exert on society. Sophistication, on the other hand, is presented as the knowledge required for the manipulation of the opposition. Authorities, for example, need to be highly sophisticated to manage to control the subjects. The subjects, on the other hand, need to be sophisticated to avoid unnecessary fights with the authorities. Generally, conflicts are more rampant where both the subjects and authorities are unsophisticated.
In sum, criminology is set at various theories, such as the theory of conflict by Austin Turk, who explained the emergence of two classes of people in the society who are related by exploitation. Generally, criminology is based on the development and implementation of theories by various theories, and Austin Turk is one of the theorists who have contributed immensely towards making the field efficient. The conflict theory is founded on the capitalist setting where people are individualistic and are always seeking to gain more wealth without considering the impact on other people. The articles written b Austin Turk are founded on the conflict theory and the relationship between the authorities and subjects in society. Austin Turk generally holds the position that the existence of a conflict in a capitalist society emanates from the existence of power imbalance.
References
Grant, E. P. (2017). Conflict Theory. The Encyclopedia of Juvenile Delinquency and Justice, 1-4.
Tunnell, K. D. (2017). Crimes of the capitalist state against labor. In Controlling state crime (pp. 207-233). Routledge.
Turk, A. T. (1969). Criminality and legal order . Chicago: Rand McNally.
Turk, A. T. Conflict and criminality . American Sociological Review 31 338–352. (1966). http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2090822