Illegal settlement and forest degradation
The adverse impacts of socioeconomics and geographic factors on deforestation have been traversing globally. The scenarios that lead to deforestation vary distinctively depending on local conditions and contexts. Illegal settlement in forested areas has been one of the primary drivers of deforestation globally. Illegal settlement in forests is caused by socioeconomic, political and ecological factors (Larsen, 2015). For instance, a study carried out in Indonesia in Belitung island indicated that residents encroached Belitung island for livelihood purposes. This entailed settlement and mining activities (Sapanli, 2009). Illegal Mining and settlement in Belitung island impacts reduced the forest cover substantially with over 59,840.07 ha of forested land converted into settlement areas while an estimate of 46,122.44 ha of the forest used for tin mining activities Hermon (2016)
Elsewhere in Bangladesh, illegal forest encroachment by migrants was identified as the greatest cause of deforestation in the country (Ali, 2003). A study by Iftekhar and Hoque (2005) indicated that over 75% of the respondents involved in the study lived in encroached forest land. These migrants are individuals who were forced to relocate to forested areas of the country by externalities such as political unrest and frequent occurrence of natural calamities such as cyclones and floods. It was also observed that some of the illegal settlers in the forested areas obtained their land through leasing from corrupt influential individuals in the area. In support to these sentiments, FAO also recognizes the extent of corruption practices in promoting illegal forest settlement whereby the local forest officials fail in their mandate to execute policies that protect forests (Contreras, 2000)
A study in Ghana identified laxity in policy implementation and inadequate monitoring as a key driver to the illegal settlement in forests. Other causes were attributed to poverty among the local population which pushed them to forest reserves in search of fertile land (Acheampong et al., 2019). This study recommended a collaborative approach in forest management to reduce rampant deforestation as a result of illegal settlement. Similarly, a study by Kinyanjui (2009) on the illegal encroachment of Mau complex, in Kenya, indicated that the settlement had led to a reduction in the area covered by the forest especially in the western sides of the forest. This includes; loss of some indigenous species, both plants and animals and the loss of soil nutrients due to agricultural practices in parts of the forest areas. This study recommends modification of the forest usage patterns among the communities adjacent to the Mau forest through collective action
The provided empirical evidence suggests that illegal forest encroachment for settlement continues to pose a significant threat to forests globally. With such impacts, the global community must take drastic measures to conserve forest resource base. MacDicken et al., (2016) suggest that sustainable forest management should focus creating awareness on how forest management can be used as viable land used that yield livelihood benefits. It is also essential to reinforce forest management policies that are inclusive of local communities’ welfare to avoid conflicts. Chauldhury (2003) posits that community exclusion in forest management, in the long run, yields negative impacts such as illegal extraction of forest resources and unsustainable use. Another significant strategy is mainstreaming gender issues in the management of forests (Saket and Piazza 2010).
A study in Napal identified the recognition and boosting of local communities’ collective action by installing initiative such as transferring forest tenure rights to the landless individuals to be effective in resolving illegal settlement (Bhusal et al., 2018). Such initiatives should be adopted and modified to suite local conditions. In Kenya, the government has enacted law that helps to curb forest illegal forest encroachment and degradation (GoK, 2005) This law emphasizes on incorporating communities adjacent to forested areas in the management of the forest. The law also tries to reduce forced evictions which presents various negative impacts on the forests
The impacts of forced forest evictions on livelihoods
Forced evictions are experienced worldwide, in both developed and developing countries (UN, 2014). Globalization, urbanization, and climate change are amongst the contributing factors, enhancing the complexity of forced evictions. According to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights Resolutions, forced evictions to go against the human rights. Women, children and girls are a particularly vulnerable population throughout the process of eviction. Therefore, one way or the other forced evictions negatively impact on people’s livelihood, some having their lives changed forever.
In Kenya, forced evictions have been rampant in different parts of the country. A report written by the Kenya Human Rights Commission, (2019) reveals the impacts of forced eviction in Embobut forest. The evictions in Embobut forest saw Over 27000 marginalized groups evicted. This displacement violated the residents’ rights of sustainable use and conservation of resources as stipulated by the Kenyan constitution. The evicted communities who were mostly farmers lost their livelihoods through deprivation of indigenous subsistence activities such as farming since they left their produce unattended to hence affecting their food security (Rockliffe. 2020). Other rights infringement included the limitation of access to needs such as housing, health services and education.
In a study carried out in Menagesha Suba Forest in Ethiopia reveled varied effects of forced evictions to the small-scale farmers. The study highlighted that over 60% of residents in Menagesha Suba forest obtained their livelihood from this forest. The evictions forced about 67% of the household outside the forest area thereby impacting significantly on their livelihoods. The impacts of this forced eviction included; infringement of the resident’s rights of access to forest resources such as fuelwood, commercial charcoal production and limited access to grazing lands for livestock (Duguma et al., 2019). Elsewhere in Maasai Mau Forest Kenya (MMF), the eviction of the local dwellers in the forest had significant impacts on livelihoods. The eviction entailed that over 60% of the local households could not access livelihood assets and essential resources to sustain livelihoods. Such key resources included fuelwood, non- timber products, construction material and grazing land for their livestock. The locals were also denied cultural rights of land inheritance since they claimed that they were the right hares of their ancestral land (Duguma et al., 2019). This distorted their normal way of life since there were no prospects of obtaining livelihood resources elsewhere.
References
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UNITED NATIONS New York and Geneva, 2014