TOPIC 9: INDIGENOUS WOMEN, DISSENT, AND MOBILIZATION
Introduction
In their original setting, the Native peoples’ social structure was very simple. Individuals made up families that made up tribes. It is in these groups that their basic needs were met. They were able to have water, security, land, moral support, and a place of belonging. It was also the place where they found their identity. When colonization took place, all this was affected greatly. Colonialists saw the indigenous people as inferior and wanted to eliminate them. They had little regard for the sanctity of their land as well. Aborigine women were the ones who suffered the most because apart from being a minority group, they also had to face the patriarchal system in society. After suffering from sexual violence, battering, and emotional abuse, they began to resist the social systems of modernity, which sought to subjugate them. With that in mind, it is crucial to explore how their resistance to the social regime has panned out.
Sexual Violence Against Indigenous Women
It is not uncommon to hear the phrase “rape is nothing but more or less than a tool of patriarchal control” (Smith, 2005). It goes against Caucasian women’s human rights and antiviolence fronts. There are human and antiviolence rights for people of color. Then there are human and antiviolence rights for women. The fact that they are female and people of color simultaneously goes on to complicate the way indigenous women are perceived. It also makes it difficult to fight for their rights (Bourgeois, 2014). According to Crenshaw, (as mentioned in Smith, 2005,8), addressing this issue would require one to have an intersectional approach. This means that if rape is more than just a form of “patriarchal control,” then for indigenous women, it is a form of colonialism and racism (Smith, 2005, 9). This is because relations with colonialists were divided along the lines of color, race, and gender (Smith, 2005). The politics and economics of a nation cannot be looked at in the exclusion of sexuality (Bourgeois, 2014; Smith, 2005).
Colonialism, Racism, and Gender
Indigenous men and women do not experience sexual violence in the same way (Smith, 2005). For a woman, it is violence against her gender as a woman and against her race as an indigenous person. Native women get less attention in the media. They also get less judicial support and, in many cases, suffer from a language barrier when tackling issues of violence meted against them. The issue of sexual violence can be said to revolve around gender, colonialism, and race (Smith, 2005). The problem with racism is that many Caucasians saw the Native Indians as unclean people who were seen and not heard (Smith, 2005). The Natives have been affected by a “presence absence” (Smith, 2005). This means that they have been gradually reducing in number in the minds of the American colonialists (Smith, 2005). In the eyes of the U.S colonialists, the natives were seen as the biblical Canaanites. In this context, the Canaanites were involved with sexual deviancy in Sodom (Smith, 2005). They were also involved in incestuous relations, as with Lot and his daughters (Smith, 2005). They were descendants of the perverted Ham, who saw the nakedness of his father (Smith, 2005). The Canaanites also performed sexual orgies in the worship of their gods. This perception made the colonizers view them as sexually perverted people, especially because their cultural regalia covered less of their bodies than the clothes worn by the colonialists (Smith, 2005). In terms of religion, they were viewed as devilish, especially by Caucasian religious leaders, even devilish. The consequences of such views were that the rape of indigenous women was an act that went unnoticed. These women were viewed as already “dirty,” such as prostitutes (Smith, 2005, 10). Their bodies were therefore viewed as violable, and they were considered to lack rights.
Indians bodes were also seen as a means of preserving America’s culture and history, seeing that they were the “natives” (Smith, 2005, 11). Their identity has always been at the mercy of their Caucasian colonizers. They were not seen as “real people” and, therefore, were not considered when it came to government allocation for social services and amenities they were locked out of consideration (Smith, 2005). Neither their bodies nor their land was regarded highly. Their violation was consequently common and greatly downplayed. This led to Native women hating themselves and their identity as Indians (Smith, 2005). Some hate themselves so much that they view sexual violation as a “traditional” act (Smith, 2005, 13). Caucasians viewed the Natives as a dysfunctional group that was violent and irrational (Smith, 2005). They have been denied their human rights, such as in 1990, when they were denied the right to have a shelter for Native women who had been battered (Smith, 2005). Cases of rape within the Aborigine people have also been downplayed and dismissed as a normal part of their culture (Smith, 2005).
African American women faced the same predicament at the hands of their masters. They were “property” owned by their owners, so if they raped them, it was downplayed (Smith, 2005). Slave masters would violate their women slaves to procreate and have more slaves in that way (Smith, 2005). Whether single or married, the women were completely owned by their masters who used them sexually as they so wished. The fact that even immigrant laws were discriminatory caused many women of color to end up in prostitution (Smith, 2005). The patriarchal system thrived on male domination and female subjugation and abuse (Smith, 2005). This kind of dysfunction is fueled by denial or social and emotional blindness (Smith, 2005).
Patriarchy was a Christian concept, and it was based on violence. It is well demonstrated in the English culture where a woman was sentenced to her tongue being nailed to a tree because of verbally opposing taxation in 1664 (Smith, 2005). In this period, those who were more of a threat to the patriarchal system were widows, single women, and healers (Smith, 2005). They were more targeted for punishment as well. Even though sexual violations existed in pre-colonial times, they were not many cases. The inhuman raping of Native women increased exponentially after colonization by the Whites (Smith, 2005). The white males were the “absent referent” party in all this -violence (Smith, 2005, 23).
How Boarding Schools became a Place of Abuse for Native Women
In the late ’80s and early ’90s, various theories were proposed among the whites on how to deal with the issue of the Indians (Smith, 2005). The two theories which emerged were either physical annihilation or civilization that is “cultural or physical genocide,” so to speak (Smith, 2005; Sugars, 2004). Since the colonialists found the cultural genocide to be cheaper, they preferred it over the latter. Attending boarding schools was made compulsory for the Indians in an attempt to draw them away from indigenous culture and culture them differently (Smith, 2005). This was done by teaching their children Christianity and encouraging them to renounce their roots and be part of the dominant white society (Smith, 2005). Native practices were banned in the schools, and Christian values and the English language were encouraged instead. Those who resisted were forcibly sought in their homes, leading to the imprisonment of their parents. In 1895, for example, several such men were imprisoned at Alcatraz (Smith, 2005).
Because America is very racist, these children never really managed to get assimilated into the mainstream culture. They, therefore, ended up at the base of the socioeconomic strata. During summer holidays, these young ones were forcefully used as labor in white homes (Smith, 2005). The girls could sew, iron clothes, clean the place, and make the flower arrangements (Smith, 2005). In so doing, such girls had the patriarchal system of doing things deeply inculcated into them in place of their indigenous image of female leadership (Smith, 2005). It was not uncommon for physical and sexual violence along as emotional abuse to be meted on these girls within these boarding school setups (Smith, 2005). In most cases, it was the very teachers who were entrusted with protecting the girls who assaulted them (Smith, 2005). Despite this, a few charges were made against such teachers, but little was done in terms of the policy to protect the rights of these Native children (Smith, 2005).
It was not until 1987 that there was a law to report such cases of rape (Smith, 2005). In 1990, the Indian Child Protection act was passed to provide background information on staff to screen for sexual offenses (Smith, 2005; Ouellette, 2002). Due to insufficient funds, the matter was not implemented, leading to a spike in such cases. In Canada, such boarding schools were open from 1879 to 1986 (Smith, 2005). In 2001, a report showed that more than 50,000 Native children were killed through starvation, battering, experimentation, and strangling (Smith, 2005). This is because torture was how the system rewarded them for their resistance. Neither the church nor the governments of America or Canada have taken responsibility for the genocide (Smith, 2005).
The resurgence of the Aborigine Women
Amid all the gloom surrounding the plight for Native women, there are still those who believe in maintaining their identity and resisting the dominant system which seeks to muffle their voices (Castillo, 2010; Smith, 2005; Suzack et al., 2010). There is a need for resistance by the women who have been at the mercy of the colonialists for so long. As indigenous women open up spaces for dialogue where they get to share their experiences and expectations, they can use language to express themselves. In so doing, they can keep the spirit of resistance alive and stay true to their traditions. They can maintain the integrity of their identities and pass down knowledge and cultural education to their progeny (Smith, 2005). For example, in Anishinaabeg culture, children were not helpless but rather free spirits who ought to be respected and valued (Smith, 2005). They could cause their parents to realize many things in life.
Giving Birth as a way of Colonization
In their traditional native setting, indigenous women gave birth naturally to children with the help of midwives (Green, 2007; Lavell, J. & Lavell, C., 2006; Udel, 2001). It was a ceremony where they were surrounded by the people they loved. Such practices have been replaced by giving birth in hospitals, making the women feel like they have lost an element of their culture. They feel like even the way they bring forth life has been colonized. For Native women, going back to their cultural ways would be an act of decolonization (Lavell, J. & Lavell, C., 2006). If they played their role as the custodians of culture, they could pass down their traditions, so their children are not prisoners of white culture, which subjugates them (Green, 2007; Lavell, J. & Lavell, C., 2006; Udel, 2001). In so doing, they can be the reason Natives stay true to their roots, observe their traditions, and are proud of who they are in a discriminatory world. In deep respect for their land, Native mothers had to do a few things differently. They took their power back by paying more attention to their traditional roles of nurturing their young. Culturally giving birth and promoting the fact that just as Mother Earth keeps giving even when she’s getting little in return, they owe it to their community to do the same (Lavell, J. & Lavell, C., 2006).
The Attitudes and Structure that Enabled Women to Resist Domination
Solid Families and Supportive Fathers
The family unit has been a place where indigenous women have found strength. This is mostly because they share the same challenges and identity; hence, they are more sympathetic to each other (Anderson, 2000). Some had actual access to their indigenous communities, while others settled for urban indigenous communities when they lacked actual ties to the original Aborigines (Anderson, 2000). Women in families that are dysfunctional can find solace in these indigenous communities (Anderson, 2000).
For some women, their fathers took time to educate them about their Native life instead of being ashamed of it. They were able to resist the discrimination they faced because they were exposed to the law and their rights concerning it (Anderson, 2000; Ouellette, 2002). They were taught how to think critically and pursue careers in politics as well as other professions. Native women are strong in spirit, and they stand for their rights without wavering.
Strong women Mentors
When a Native woman encounters a fellow independent woman, it encourages her to aspire for more and win over every challenge they face (Anderson, 2000). Mothers, Grandmothers, and other women who can mentor a girl and educate them about what life as an indigenous woman is like, are crucial (Anderson, 2000). Girls are very close to their grandmothers. They find it particularly easy to confide in them. This bond has been used to help them understand the effects of colonialization and patriarchal extremism. They learn how to confront social injustices against them like racial discrimination and sexual violence, which is not uncommon among women of color (Anderson, 2000).
Generally speaking, women were strong. They cooked, nurtured their families, made family decisions, managed the cattle, learned survival tactics, and hunted (Anderson, 2000; Udel, 2001). Such skills were passed down to their girls and the desire to become whatever they wished to in society. The older women educated the young women on their rights as in the Indian Act, including what would happen to them in marriage (Anderson, 2000; Ouellette, 2002). When girls grew up in environments where there was little difference between the roles played by men and those played by women, they were more confident in their roles (Anderson, 2000). All these helped the women to develop resistance.
Politics
In the past, aboriginal women have not had representation in politics (Lawrence & Anderson, 2005). Political activity has been a way through which women have developed resistance. Various resistance fronts have emerged over the years. In 1969, for example, there were demonstrations at Alcatraz during which Indians emphasized that they mattered too (Anderson, 2000; Dyck, 1985). A group of students from the university inhabited the abandoned prison in solidarity with these indigenous people (Anderson, 2000). In 1973, the Indians staged another demonstration at Wounded Knee in South Dakota for 69 days (Anderson, 2000; Dyck, 1985). Canada experienced the Oka crisis, where they protested the construction of a sports club on Native land (Anderson, 2000; Dyck, 1985). From the ’70s, women went on to oppose their disenfranchisement through marriage as per the Indian Act (Anderson, 2000; Dyck, 1985; Ouellette, 2002). The law was based on patriarchal ownership of land and other assets. Women of Native descent came together to support one another and challenge this subjective law. The law was overruled in 1985, and women were liberated as a result (Anderson, 2000; Ouellette, 2002).
The Land
The way a woman was tied to her land and identity defined her and gave ger the strength for resistance (Kermoal & Jimenez, 2016). During their childhood, the land they explored, especially when they needed to reflect and get closure was crucial (Anderson, 2000). Many Indian women have fond memories of how their habit of staying outdoors helped them escape the reality of the abuse and female subjugation, which was characteristic of their tribe (Anderson, 2000). Some “talked to the earth,” while others went on adventurous expeditions to deal with molestation and other injustices (Anderson, 2000). For other women, they found a great sense of identity in the Geographical lessons they had in their tribal organizations (Anderson, 2000; Kermoal & Jimenez, 2016).
The Language and Storytelling
Language has played a great role in giving women of Native descent the strength for resistance as well. It encourages the esteem of these women, especially in the Dakota Nation, where women have a language of their own, which is different from that of men (Anderson, 2000). The language of the Indians refers to women with the utmost respect and with purity. This enables Native women to view themselves from a point of view, which is different from that of their Caucasian colonizers (Anderson, 2000). Storytelling is a practice that anchors resistance. They preserve the Native languages as well as their history. In the majority of folklore, women were referred to with respect (Anderson, 2000). This enabled them to maintain a positive identity in a culture that is patriarchal (Anderson, 2000). They used humor to resist their situation. Laughter among indigenous groups was common, and it helped them vent and face life more positively.
Religious Practices
Spirituality has been the core of many women’s lives. It has given them resilience to stand their ground and maintain a positive identity. Native people have the right to practice their culture (Trask, 1999). By practicing their Native religion, they resist the notion that it is a “pagan” or “evil” one (Anderson, 2000, 113). They can tap into their spirituality through attending and being part of indigenous ceremonies, visions, dreams, and advice from the spirits that guide them (Anderson, 2000).
Ways in Which Indigenous Women Resist Domination
Opposing stereotypes
Identifying and resisting negative stereotypes is important for indigenous women. It could be negative experiences in the classroom setting or elsewhere in society. Many young girls do not even notice that what they are experiencing is racism at first (Castagno, 2005; Anderson, 2000). Most of them eventually realize this and acknowledge racial discrimination for what it is (Castagno, 2005). In such settings, they were viewed as “savage and in need of salvation,” which is to say that they needed conversion to Christianity (Anderson, 2000). They were also viewed as women who were lacking in morals (Anderson, 2000).
Writing
Indigenous women have used writing to express their views, especially those about social injustices committed against them (Anderson, 2000; Archuleta, 2006). Using language, paper, and ink, these women can challenge and reinvent society (Anderson, 2000; Archuleta, 2006). Writing also serves as a platform to set things straight. It enables Native to reveal the truth about themselves, their culture, and redefine themselves in a way that is not discriminatory (Anderson, 2000). Reading works of other Native women gives indigenous women the ability to see their challenges differently and begin a healing process (Anderson, 2000). It is good that the demand for literature by Native women is on the rise (Anderson, 2000).
Using Creativity to Maintain their Identity
Generally speaking, their subjugation has caused the indigenous woman to believe that she cannot perform in arts and performance (Anderson, 2000). They have resisted this idea by getting involved in dancing, singing, and other arts like sewing (Anderson, 2000; Simpson, 2016). Indigenous drums also play a role in allowing Native women to connect with their inner selves. In so doing, they can shake off negative perceptions about them as they employ affirmations that are empowering (Anderson, 2000). Drumming, especially in the case of large drums, has been perceived as a man’s domain. Women are slowly but surely fighting back the stereotypes around this phenomenon (Anderson, 2000). Sewing used to be part of a woman’s identity in the past. Women used to sew beautiful and artistic pieces of clothing like mittens, clothes, and scarves (Anderson, 2000). By engaging in this ancient art, they have been reclaiming their identity and resisting the stereotypes (Anderson, 2000).
Opposing Assimilation
There have been attempts at destroying the indigenous tribes in both America and Canada (Anderson, 2000). As a result, Native women are under pressure to conform and deny their true roots. Some time back, most Natives went to great extents to just fit in and forfeit their identity. Instead of allowing their nativity to bring them guilt, some Natives have embraced it and refused to fit in (Fenelon & Hall, 2008; Simpson, 2016; Suzack et al., 2010).
Resisting the Church
The church played a role in shaping the social fabric during the colonization of America (Anderson, 2000). Therefore, it was a contributor to the injustices committed against them (Fenelon & Hall, 2008). This provoked a resistance towards the church from indigenous women who wore bright colored clothes, lipstick shoes, and wore their hair long to defy it (Anderson, 2000). They also took charge of their sexuality by engaging in extra-marital coitus as a way of resisting Christianity (Anderson, 2000). For some, it was because they blamed its teachings for ending in unhappy marriages, while for others, it was due to the social injustices they faced.
Conclusion
Native women have suffered an array of social injustices over the years. These include grave sexual assault and heinous acts of violence meted on them. Presently, the political, educational, and commercial spaces are slowly opening up for them. Policies are also more favorable than they were a while back. Despite this progress, there is still a lot more that needs to be done. The awareness of sexual violence and racial discrimination that indigenous women experienced is not as widespread as it should be considering that it is the 21st century, and we live in democratic societies. It is high time the world acknowledges the aboriginal woman for who she is and in the fullness of her identity.
References
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