Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This section will observe the past and the present studies conducted related to study objectives. This part will help identify former areas of scholarship to avoid duplication, identify gaps in research, previous studies conflict, and raise questions from the recent research. It will place the research in the existing literature context showing the need for further studies. To enable suitable guidance of the research questions, the effort of the past scholars is reviewed.
2.2 International Business Management
Currently, all businesses are part of the globalized economy of the world, and it is a global issue conducting business and handling enterprises (Devita, 2000.). The authors report about experiences and reflections on theory-based activities concerning communication and contribution to the multicultural sector in the aspect of education business management. Risk treatment in the international management literature widely focuses on specific doubts excluding other related doubts (Miller, 1992).
2.3 Notion of national culture.
Will discuss the various cultural dimensions as they are applied to the Chinese culture in terms of Chinese norm, culture, and values. National culture refers to specific characteristics such as racial identity, religion, language, and ethnic, and cultural traditions and history. It is also a set of behaviors, customs, norms, values, and beliefs shared by a sovereign nation (Banton, 2007). National cultural differences can be implied by different dimensions: individualism-collectivism, uncertainty-avoidance, and masculinity-femininity. The dimensions can be measured and stipulate specific country profiles. It is crucial to note that: these dimensions’ scores are averages. Statistically, national profiles are very important in forecasting behavior, and it should not be used to form a judgment in advance or confirm others.
2.4 Dimension of national culture
Different authors have expressed different dimensions of national culture. The term culture from a conceptual dimension is reserved from Latin formerly, where it was explained as land culture (Hofstede et al., 2012). Later, it was defined as the agricultural engineering combinations essential for crucial harvesting. With the season, culture has developed to be a broad activity, comprehending occasions from all areas and with a similar purpose. Basically, from a smaller perspective, through education, literature and art culture means civilization. Perhaps many studies have been conducted concerning a concise and clear cultural explanation. Romanian dictionary explains culture as the spiritual assets and material that humanity creates and institutions responsible for assets communication (Romanian Dictionary, 2019).
The Geert Hofstede’s perspective of national culture model
Firstly, he concentrated on aspects theoretically, reasoning theories, to follow his different research forms. Until explaining culture, he illustrated culture conditions in 4 factors comprising the fundamentals of cultural differences. The factors include a) symbols that include: words, images, gestures, b) heroes, which entails behavior models, c) rituals which comprise of: ceremonies, lecturers and collective activities, and d) assets. The model takes different dimensions: power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long term orientation, and indulgence. And in China, they grouped as below.
China sits at a higher ranking of PDI at 80, meaning the society that believes that differences among people are acceptable, and all models are well illustrated and ranked in China (Hofstede, 2009).
The Trompenaar’s perspective of national culture model
Fons Trompeenaar, an economist, began to form his master’s research concerning culture, where he explained the structural model of various cultures. While carrying out his business activities, man companies globally associated with him gave him a chance to assess differences in culture and offer consistent access to data. Trompeenaar formed a model comprising of seven scales (A.Maleki and M.de Jong, 2014).
The authors Charles Hampden and Fons Trompenaars in their book “Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity Cultural in Business” admitted that cultural differences occur between institutions and societies, and the way of performing activities is affected directly by it. Therefore, agreeing with the two, culture is defined as how a specific population finds solutions to challenges and tries to reconcile the dilemmas ((Trompenaars and Hampden- Turner, 1997)
The GLOBE perspective of national culture model
The program GLOBE research was described in 1991 by Robert J. In Roberts’s first volume on the study of differences in culture and leadership. The GLOBE more lens to the managerial team by which they might understand better how to do best in an international environment. It is a recent action to attribute the meaning of dimensions of culture. Nine dimensions of culture have been uncovered, and the dimensions are power distance, avoidance uncertainty, femininity, masculinity, institutional, societal collectivism, human orientation, and performance orientation. Below is the description of the dimensions.
GLOBE researchers have also grouped nations into clusters of nations with the same characteristics. The grouping stipulates a fitting way to recapitulate a large number of countries’ cultural information and simplifies the role of the international manager trying to manage in nations within the clusters effectively. For the clusters comprises clusters within similar culture profiles, the same adaptations of culture can be made.
The Inglehart’s perspective of national culture model
A research paper has been done by Ronald Inglehart concerning cultural changes, how they interconnect with different aspects of the social life, and their quantity. Combined with Christian Welzel, they explained two standard cultural map dimensions (Inghlehart, Welzel, 2005). The dimensions included: Temporal versus traditional-rational values and self-expression versus survival values.
- Secular versus traditional-rational values- religion is significant in this culture, the relationship between the parent and the child, varying to authority and beliefs of the traditional family.
- Self-expression versus survival values- which pay more attention to physical and economic security. A high chance is offered by Self-expression values to protect the environment, increase the endurance of origin and gender equality, and increase demands for involvement in making decisions in political and economic life. From the authors, both dimensions describe more than 70% of variation transnationally in ten indicators of analysis of factor, and every dimension has a strong correlation with other crucial orientations scores (Inghlehart and Welzel, 2005). The most excellent s Self-expression versus survival values is demonstrated by protestant groups, nations such as Denmark, Canada, and Sweden. The greatest crucial argument for Inglehart’s cultural models is: in the current world values is varying with the modern tenets, values are different across societies by religion, education, ethnicity, and education, and finally, culture zone reflects various patterns of culture by ancient pathways.
The SCHWARTZ’S perspective of national culture model
An Israeli Sociologist Shalom Schwartz obtained the period between 1988 and 1992 data collected in 38 countries illustrating 41 cultural groups. Schwartz’s research performed in cultural values model established in three crucial aspects which include social behavior, how the person relates with the group and the people’s purpose in the social world and all the aspects were incorporated to the framework of the culture consisting of seven different dimensions, as below (S. Schwartz, 2008).
All models are essential in explaining the dimensions of culture. But the Globe model and Hofstede models are more valuable studies in international management and Business. Comparing China
And the US, see the table below;
China and US GLOBE Cultural Dimensions
Comparing China to the US using the mean, the figures provide a good description from practices, perspectives, and values. And it is easily seen that China ranks higher than the US.
According to Hofstede and GLOBE model, china has a high score compared to the USA. China also puts more emphasis on more collectivism while the US puts more on collectivism, and also china has a Higher score of PDI score than that of the US.
2.5 Introduction to cross-cultural Communication and its effectiveness
Cross-cultural management mostly focuses on people’s behavior, working together as an organization or a group (Adler, 1983). Among researchers and trainers of cross-cultural trainers, significant concentration has been focused on challenges encountered in adapting to the new cultures. The way to operatively transfer skills and knowledge to people of various cultural backgrounds is becoming a significant concern (Ruben, 1977). Culture manipulates the way people think and behave and differently understand the vision and purpose of firms. Reviewing the recent studies, many authors shortlist the difference of style management, the behavior of staff, and multinational firm’s communication. Mishler, an author, argues that the rate of communication barriers and misunderstandings depends on the number of cultural differences (Mishler, 1965). Many managerial teams have focused to the challenge of cross-cultural communication conflict. Many different researchers have handled cross-cultural communication in their studies. Mary 1993 uses a many managerial communications insights in the manager’s Cross-cultural communications. To effectively communicate, the author recommends the managerial team to consider seven aspects before any communication (Mary, 1993).
2.6 Challenges of Cross-Cultural Communications in international Business
The broad study of cross-cultural management focuses on solving organizational behavior like the style of leadership, strategy, motivational approaches, and structure of the organization (Morden, 1995).
2.7 Challenges of Cross-Cultural Communication in the Hotel Industry.
Hospitality organizations such as hotels that are rapidly operating internationally establish real problems for their managerial team and the employers to relate and permanently work with persons from various cultural environments. Increased challenges might relate to intercultural communication between employees and managers. To satisfy customers, many service firms rely strongly on their employees (Lee-Ros, 2003). The unique talents and abilities are appreciated to give high-quality service. The employees play a crucial task in acquiring a competitive advantage (Baron and Armstrong, 2008). This is widely seen in the hospitality industry, often called the people industry (Kim et al. 2007).
2.8 Challenges of Cross-Cultural Communication in M Hotel of UK and Strategy to Solve the Challenges.
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