Is image more important than geography in the construction of maps?
Maps refer to the graphic presentation of the real world. It can also be defined as the representation of real abstraction. The universe is infinite in nature and hence it is not possible to capture the real-world complexity. Maps are used in displaying both environments physical and cultural features. Topographic maps are applied to display a variety of information such as rivers plus other water bodies, roads, elevation, political boundaries, land-use classification, and building classification. Maps are constructed with a specific mind goal. When properly constructed map act as a tool for effective communication. Various cartographic principles have been developed to guide ineffective map construction. One of the major contentious issues has been whether images or geography is important in map construction. This paper will therefore compare and contrast images and geography effectiveness in the construction of the map.
Geography refers to the study of places as well as the relationship between the environment and people. It involves the exploration of the earth’s surface physical properties as well as human society spread in the environment. Geography focuses on the study of land, inhabitants, phenomena, and feature of earth services. Maps are used to communicate and express geographical features. In the construction of maps geography, therefore, play an important role. When constructing a map it is a good note that the map must communicate to its users. If not then the map is of no use and hence it will be misleading.
Images play a significant role in the study of geography. Images are a key source of geospatial information. Different cartographical visualization forms (hardcopy and softcopy) are applied in the presentation of remote sensing images. The extraction of geospatial information from remote sensing is considered to be a complicated and advanced issue in the construction of maps today (Kudelka et. al. 2012). With today’s dynamics world geographers prefer technology to present the real world. Unlike the traditional approach which was considered to be time-consuming and costly to construct the map, today cheap and fast tools for map construction have been developed.
The effectively communicate maps should have a data frame. This refers to a percentage of maps that represent the data layer. The Data frame is the central focus and the most important element of the map document. The second element of a map is the legend. This explains symbols in the data flame. Detail description of color categorization, symbology, or schemata is explained in this section. A map should also have a title. Tittle helps the viewer to understand what the map entails. With a good title, the user will not struggle to look for the map details so as to understand what it entails, but the title helps the user to know what is on the map.
Map construction ether by manual or digital approach involves a combination of both visual images and complex geographic information. However currently most experts have adopted technology to help in the construction of maps. Construction of effective maps needs one to have skills of how to develop the maps that able to coherently communicate to the viewers. Geography and visual images are both tools applied to organize and complete map construction.
Image mapped contains both geographical features and other elements used by cartographers used in construction of maps that inset, frame, title, controls, toolbars, legend, and insert. The geographically constructed map is designed to represent spatial phenomena which are often separated between base and thematic information (Krygier & Wood, 2016).
Lack of scale in map gives inaccurate distant estimate. Geography mapping is associated with imperfection. Geography use small scale to construct and hence result to missing of details of the real world. Absence of legend result to confusion to map users. Flat maps are always associated with distortion. It is impossible for the users to project the earth curved surface on a flat screen/sheet with perfect accuracy. Geography is therefore associated with inaccuracy. Geography mapping omit some important information hence resulting to errors. This inaccuracy may result to confusion when one to make some decision. It may also to loss of directions. Unlike the geography mapping to day images are digitally made and therefore it is possible for the individual to calculate the scale used digitally. This also make it easy for the individual to interpret the information provided as compared to use geography to construct maps.
In construction of maps image is considered to be more important than the geography. Image maps are associated with various advantages. As compared to traditional geography mapping, use of image to construct map is considered to be cost effecting tool of map design. The technique have been proven to be cheap from a quality base for GIS. In addition geographers are able to construct map more quick as compared to geography mapping. Image mapping has benefit of plentiful information, high precision, fine visualization, intuition and convenient acquisition. As compared to geography mapping, orthophoto maps are considered to be more accurate and hence they are highly reliable.
Photographic image is obtained through elimination of image displacements that occur as result of photo azimuths and tilts and also as the impact of ground surface height differences. Photo image maps are used in creation of raster GIS data base. They may be in digital or analogue for. Images are classified into three classifications based on the kinds of sensors applied. this include photographic, radar and scanner systems. the common and basic properties of satellite images focus on spatial information available in terrestrial areas. Construction of topographic maps from satellite images should fulfill the quality expectations of users or viewers. These include height (vertical) accuracy, planimetric (horizontal) accuracy and detectability feature (recognition and interpretation. Images created can be stored either in analog or digital form. Hence , the data used to construct the map can be used for future reference.
Another wonderful feature of digital orthophotography is that, it has no image generalization. This means that, it does not contain a generalization of the cartographer which, in the case of the conventional vector map, is usually not complete. With the digital orthophotography, anyone who views the map can able to depict what is on the image clearly.
An image map is produced by adding various cartographic elements such as region/mountain/hill/stream names, other geographic place and feature names, grid lines and other cartographic map sheet border information to an ortho-rectified satellite image (ortho image). This map is usually produced in the dimensions and scales of the standard topographic maps. The image maps are completely similar to the orthophoto maps in view of the use and properties. Optimum/ideal ortho-image and image map scales to be produced from various satellite images commonly used in the world in today
Many end uses of orthophotos have sophisticated software as well as robust hardware to manipulate and view image maps. The end users only need to observe the selected image elements and perform analysis which includes relative area, distance and change analysis. To achieve these, proper design of images is important. The following factors should be considered when designing the map accuracy requirements (feature and relative). Geographers should also consider the expected application of the map and the smallest feature to be studied and viewed. In addition the anticipated equipment for viewing the map should also be considered. The finally it is good to consider the equipment, information and processes applied in construction of maps.
The images mapping have positive features of photography which include timely coverage and detailed information. The map constructed also has positive attribute of true geometry and uniform scale. This helps the image to be applied in their main function as a base on which map attributes are overlaid. Visual images represent the basic application for remote sensing imagery. Currently image maps are constructed through scanning of aerial photographs and thereafter converting the images into raster image file format.
Methodology
The participants of this are student in geography class and other person with experience on map constructions. Map construction is very important concept in political field. Map helps in communication of information relating to the universe. The communications can be done using symbols signs, drawing and images as well as convectional standards and procedures. The discrepancy between the quantity and quality of the grade obtained in this course is the main motivating factor behind search for new methods of learning and teaching to enhance these results. The results of this empirical analysis are to influence different stakeholders to identify the best tool for constructing maps.
The findings of this research are based on historical information as well as empirical evidence from other scholars. Evidence based methodology is based on underlying information about the subject matter. The conclusion for the subject matter is founded on the available evidence from other scholars. This is only achieved in case the available evidence systematically and consistently identifies, select, summarise, synthesize and interpret the available information. Conclusion for the study will be adjusted to the continuous dynamic evidence ecosystem. The evidence base methodology is considered to be better for this method for it is easy to obtain the readily available information. The information selected is based on its relevance to the subject matter. The available evidence is also screed for relevance and its impact to the map construction tools. The evidence based methodology is considered as the best approach for this papers as the researcher is able to get view of different researchers and scholars as result this make it possible for us to make objective conclusion. The evidence based methodology is also considered as it gives the qualitative and quantitative data for the purpose of the analysis. The method is therefore considered to be more accurate and reliable.
Empirically analysis
Image maps emerged as result of three inventions: aviation, photography and cartography. Image is one of tool for map construction addressed in cartography. Developments of technology have also resulted to use of image sensor which produce clear images.
This section highlight the reason why image are considered considers to be important compared to geography in construction of map, the analysis is based on the findings of other scholars. Maps help in creation of national narrative. Maps influence in formulation of national values and identity as well as how people perceive and interpret information. There exist variation between these in the land and such discrepancies can be express through use of maps.
Maps are applied for manipulative purpose. This is applied through use of the map title and the names assigned to different part of localities or parts on the map. Concealing or stressing facts and figures are well defined in the map through use colors to obscure or to accentuate, by application of various map projections and other additional descriptions. Use of image maps present more clear information as compared to text. Map represent large amount of data in image maps and small space hence making the more interactive. Construction of topographic maps from satellite images should fulfill the quality expectations of users or viewers. These include height (vertical) accuracy, planimetric (horizontal) accuracy and detectability feature (recognition and interpretation. Images created can be stored either in analog or digital form.
Image map are constructed by adding several cartographic features including stream/hill/mountain/region name. in additional image map adds grid lines, feature names, geographic place as well as sheet border information. the mas are produced in scales and dimensions that reflect standard topographic maps. The ideal or optimum image map and ortho-image scales have increase their popularity in today’s world.
Image maps are more transparent and hence the users are able to understand them. Today they can be produced through the use of digital cameras. As result of enhanced technology the use of images to construct maps have increased accuracy of the fact and figures presented in the map unlike the use of geography which mostly rely on estimates.
Maps are images that contain specific conceptual properties and specific graphics. The reception of the image map largely depend on how the visual system function. Empirical study conducted in 1980s and 1990s as well as cognitive psychology showed that visual system contribute much to the quality of the map developed. Map constructed from the images are considered to me more clear as compared to the geography map which are mostly constructed from sketch test.
The visual perception of image maps need the user to use the specific element or features to interpret the quality of the map constructed (Bossler, 2002).He further add that thematic and special information is obtained from remotely sensed information. It is important for the lay person, scientists and proffessinals to know the accuracy of the information presented in the map. . The image quality has interpreted by various scholars. These elements include the tone/colour, size, shape, shadow, patter, texture, site, height and association (Chuvieco and Huete, 2010). The element of that make image important tool in map construction include the following.
Tone/colour: application of additive colour-combing approaches the colour attribute fall apart into saturation, hue and intensity. These features make it easy for the map users to differential different matters in the map. For example in interpretation of water surface and natural color image in most case they are depicted in woodland in green and shade of blue.
The second element is the shape. This refer to the dimensional outline of thee objected as illustrated in the map. Shape plays significant role in helping the user to identify the objects, for example are often identified by narrow smooth curves while buildings can be identified by rectangular shape in image maps. Images therefore can be said to have distinctive approach for identifying objects on the map (Einstein and Rosen, 1935).
The users of the map are also able to identify the size of different objects represented in the map. The size gives the scale that is used in the map (Cartwright and Ruas, 2015). Image map are considered to be important tool for developing maps for their ability to use the scales. This increases accuracy of the measurements given in the maps.
The visual cognition and perception of image maps is founded on the human perception research findings. Human perception plays important function in processing and communication of human information (Marr, 2010). Visual perception refers to the transformation of the light pattern on the retina into the visible earth surface. The primary visual perception can be extracted by the map users. Image contribute to human perception about the map presentation and it ability to describe facts and figures accurately.
The symbolized and rasterized object visual perception and cognition is founded on Gestalt psychology. This describe how visual element are cognitively organized into groups. It is very important for human perception to identify what is the importance of the each map object. Visual images are able to separate each object making easy for the users to differentiate different objects in the map (Murphy, 2019).
The image maps also give the location information of different objects. The topographic and geographic sites give hints about the object depicted in the map. For example, the images can use certain trees to describe the climate likely to be experienced in certain areas. Image therefore gives the user a better understanding of the characteristics of different areas represented in the map (ILIEŞ and Deac, 2015). The image maps are also considered to be important in construction of the maps as they address how different objects in the map relate to each other. For example the image can use boats to explain the manmade activities that are in the lake basins. Topographic maps are applied to display variety of information such as rivers plus other water bodies, roads, elevation, political boundaries, land-use classification and building classification (Kudelka et. al. 2012). Maps are constructed with specific mind goal. All this features are well represented in the image and hence it makes it easy for one to understand different features of the map. The photo image can also be shared with in social media unlike traditional maps done on the plain papers.
Radiometric corrections or image restoration is done to eliminate errors in the maps introduced by atmospheric influence or sensor system (Albertz, 2009). The sensor system is characterized by inwanted effected resulted by the limitation in data recording, spectral digitization or optical sensing. Atmospheric influences result to very bright image as well as reduced contrast. The impact is dependent of the number of variables which include surface physiography, atmospheric haze, sensor viewing geometry, earth-sun distance and sun elevation. Banham and Katsaggelos (1997) provided a good overview of classical radiometric corrections approaches.
This approach for map construction is considered advantageous as it allow image enhancement. Image enhancement refers to image modification that make image more suitable for human vision. This contributes more to the human perception in relation to the visual image interpretations. Unlike the traditional tools for map construction which are considered to be rigid image as tool of map construction is considered to be more flexible. The image can therefore be edited to fit the desired features to be used by the researchers as well as other users of the maps.
The principle benefit for image map is the low cost as compared to tools, it is relative simple and also increase the speed for constructing maps. The method detailed information that is not present on the convectional line maps. This increase the level of clarity obtained from to the users of the map and hence enhance decisional. In politics it is also good to note maps are used in resource allocation and hence the political decision makers need clear information so as to make sound decisions.
City planners and engineers are interested in development of the site. The location is well demonstrated by ortho-image maps. Photography gives clear picture of the area development. This give a clear picture of the site. The platform sharing image like blogs and social sites allow frequent updating of the images. Unlike the convection maps image maps re therefore up to date and therefore give the true picture of the real world which may not be reflected in image mapping.
Despite many advantages associated with image maps some scholars hold that use of images to construct maps is associated with some limitations. Some of these images include that in some instances image maps are not accurate. They are not based on facts and in some instances this kind of maps may be misleading to the users. The maps also does not show the exert size and location of all the objects since they are considered to be emergency.
Today scientist continues to develop new approach of developing maps. With introduction of satellite its have become easy for people to provide shot of a specific target location. The satellite imagery have the advantage of multi-spectral analysis. This help to capture the frequency of light beyond the eye sight. This therefore helps in covering more objects in the universe that cannot be capture using the conventional methods of viewing the universe. As result the scope for map construction have been increased. The growth in the technology has therefore increased more insight about the universe. It is also good to note that with the use of digital cameras today it is possible to record when the map was recorded. Most images therefore note the date for the map and hence the use of the map is able to know when the map was constructed and hence avoid the use of the irrelevant maps.
Good maps are characterized by the ability of the user to be able to unambiguously and easily get the information from the map. Most of the geographical map is very hard to understand and therefore it is not easy for the users to get the information being communicated by the map. Maps which are not able to communicate to the audience are of no use. Images and specifically the digital one are easy to understand and interpret. One does not require much knowledge of geography to understand photos and images. Even the illiterate persons are able to understand the images used in the maps. This make image of the best tool to apply when constructing the maps.
Ding, Xiao & Yu (2011) in their study about the importance of filtering images on maps is very crucial, hence how the image will look like is more important than considering the geography. In their argument, the authors believe that a map should have a desirable visual quality in all conditions. Moreover, this is essential in the fact that it becomes easy to read and locate a geographical position. Therefore, it is crucial for an image to be displayed across different settings and aspect ratios. In support of this argument, scholars like Vozenilek & Belka (2016) in their study about “the cartographic concept of image” gives evidence as to why image consideration in building of maps is important to geographical consideration. For instance, they build their argument on image map which they consider a special map showing geographical space in a specific cartographical projection.
Conclusion
In conclusion, both image consideration and geographical consideration are important in construction of maps. However, this paper has established that image consideration is more important than geographical. Therefore, the essential of remote sensing image data for visualization in cartography is very important. As established, use of image in map construction increases the transmission speed of spatial information from the map to the user. However, it has also been identified that the process of preprocessing of component of image and conventional map construction is tedious. Finally the researcher established that accuracy and reliability of image as tool of map construction is another reason for the researcher preference.
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