ORAL SKILLS

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ORAL SKILLS

Oral skills are speech accompaniments that are used to produce clear sentences that are intelligible to an audience. Oral skills are used to boost the precision of speech for effective communication. On the other hand, communication is the transmission of messages and accurate interpretation of information between people.

ORAL REPORT

The standard oral report consists of an introduction (“tell the audience what you are going to tell them”), the main body (“tell them”), and a conclusion (“tell them what you have told them”). The introduction should include an overview of the rest of the talk to help the listener understand what you are going to say.

Prepare an Effective Oral Presentation

1. Organise your thoughts. Start with an outline and develop good transitions between sections.
2. Have a strong opening
3. Define terms early
4. Finish with a bang.
5. Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information.
6. Time yourself.
7. Create effective notes for yourself.
8. Practice, practice, practice.
9. How to take an oral report
10. Take short notes.
11. Pay attention to the non-verbal cues used by the speakers, e.g., facial expressions.
12. Pay attention to the use of signposting.
13. Consider the use of pause to suggest hesitation on the

part of the speakers.

1. Consider the use of intonation to show finality as the speaker makes statements.

DIRECTION

The direction is defined as the path that something takes, the path that must be taken to reach a specific place, how something is starting to develop or the way you are facing. An example of direction is when you go right instead of left.

It is important to read and get directions before beginning the journey to your destination.

How to give accurate direction

1. Giving the direction with few turns.
2. Indicate the turns—whether left or right.
3. Mention the landmarks.
4. Specify distance.
5. Warn them about any confusing parts of the route.
6. Say which side of the street or road the place is located.
7. Repeat directions to them and allow them to repeat back instructions to you.
8. Draw a simplified map if paper and pencil or pen are available.
9. I would give them a drop-dead point.
10. How to get information if there is a challenge

COMMUNICATION

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to another. Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient.

What prevents effective communication?

1. language barrier
2. transport problems
3. unreliable informants
4. religious prejudice
5. distortion of information

One may show that he/she is paying close attention (listening carefully) by

1. interrupting and disagreeing politely
2. Presenting facts and opinions precisely
3. asking for clarification politely
4. Making compromises/accommodating other views.
5. Being patience
6. Being firm
7. by Being respect and appreciation of other people’s views.
8. Taking turns to allow one to make a point

When do we use the word, thank you?

1. Someone appreciates you/congratulates compliments.
2. Someone offers you a service.

Pausing in speech

Why will you consider using pauses when speaking?

1. To draw attention
2. To allow the audience to think /internalise what you have said.

PERFORMANCE

How a performer can prepare for a performance

1. Rehearse to master the content before performance day
2. Look for appropriate costumes and accompaniments.
3. Stage a mock recitation before an imaginary audience
4. Practice on the use of facial expressions, tonal variations, and gestures to use
5. Know the time when you are to perform.
6. Ensure good grooming
7. Think of conventional ways of attracting the audience, e.g., clearing the throat.
8. Consult an expert for advice on performance

How can a performer attract the attention of the audience to perform? I would draw the audience by:

1. Enter the stage with a relevant song
2. Pose a related or relevant question
3. Cough, clear voice/throat
4. Use a short form genre, e.g., tongue twister.
5. Whistle
6. Clap my hands

How a performer can deliver a good performance

1. Audibility – be clear and audible so that you can be heard.
2. Use correct articulation so that the story can be understood.
3. Use gestures to show, for example, how big or small something is.
4. Dramatise the characters for entertainment.
5. Involve your audience, for example, in singing and answering questions.
6. Choose appropriate register / to understand.
7. Begin with a riddle or tongue twister to captivate the audience.
8. Tonal variation – vary tone to bring out different characters in the story.

Performer fails when they.

1. The narrator overuses gestures / facial expressions.
2. Use of irrelevant/inappropriate gestures.
3. The narrator is shy / lacks eye contact.
4. The narrator couldn’t pronounce words correctly/not fluent.

Breaking boredom in literature or speech

1. Crack a relevant joke.
2. Introduce a song that will arouse them.
3. Involve them by asking them relevant questions.
4. Introduce an anecdote that stimulates interest.
5. Organise to end the talk.
6. Ask them to stand and stretch.

AUDIENCE

They are assembled spectators or listeners at a public event such as a play, film, or concert

How a performer can attract the attention of the audience.

1. I would project my voice and not shout.
2. Being Audible – ensuring that I am loud enough.
3. I would be close to the audience.
4. Ensuring there are proper pronunciation and articulation of words.
5. I would adopt a moderate pace.
6. I would use verbal and non-verbal cues
7. I would involve them in a common song
8. I would ask them a relevant question
9. I would maintain meaningful eye contact.

How would you attract the attention of the audience?

1. I would use a summarising riddle to alert the audience.
2. Do it by asking a relevant question.
3. Ahem or clear my throat.
4. Use an introductory statement, ‘I have a story’ ‘Take a story’ ‘Story story.’
5. Start by singing a relevant song.
6. Challenge the audience using a tongue- twister.

Active audience

1. When they are nodding their heads where appropriate
2. Through their facial expressions (relevant to the story)
3. When they are clapping in agreement with the relevant situations
4. Laughing or expressing sadness where necessary
5. They maintain meaningful eye contact with you.
6. They stamp their feet.

Signs of inattentiveness among the audience

1. Yawning
2. Looking at the watches constantly.
3. Murmuring
4. Passing notes to each other
5. They are constantly peering out through the window.
6. They are not maintaining eye contact.
7. Not constantly adopting good posture.4
8. Dosing/sleeping

Managing stage fright

1. Take a deep breath
2. Anticipate an ordinary audience
3. Quickly go through the points to be discussed in the presentation.

SPEECH

This is the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds.

Speech, language is referring to the means of communication used by people. Speech is the expression of ideas and thoughts through articulate vocal sounds or the faculty of thus expressing ideas and thoughts.

To capture the audience attention, I would do the following.

1. Maintain a meaning eye- contact with the speaker.
2. Adopt a posture that is authoritative because this might elicit a positive response
3. Do something unexpected like referring to a specific person by name without embarrassing them.
4. Begin with a surprising question
5. Clap or ring a bell
6. Start by telling a joke or relating an anecdote
7. Begin with a famous quotation or a proverb

How would you ensure that your communication is effective?

Make use of appropriate gestures

1. Pronounce words correctly
2. Use tonal variation/vary my tone
3. Have an upright posture
4. Keep eye contact with the audience.
5. Acknowledge various parties’ contributions to the success of the day.
6. Be audible

            Analyse my audience in terms of

1. age
2. religious background
3. political affiliation
4. cultural background
5. educational level
6. social status

How to capture the audience attention when giving a speech

Having a captivating introduction/ using a quotation, a story, a rhetorical question, an anecdote, etc. related to the topic.

Supporting points with appropriate illustrations.

I am using appropriate body language, e.g. gestures, facial expressions.

Establishing closeness/ contact with the audiences by involving them or moving among them.

Maintaining meaningful eye contact with the audience.

Responding to audience feedback.

Concluding by tying everything together/summarising/ reviewing the key points

How to present a speech effectively.

1. Use gestures effectively to reinforce the words and ideas you are trying to communicate to your audience.
2. Make meaningful eye contact with your audience members to study their reactions to you. If you sense boredom, you need to improve, and if you sense enthusiasm, it will help pump you up.
3. Use targeted stage movements to establish contact with your audience. Getting closer to the audience increases their attention and interest and encourages response if you ask questions. Your posture should be upright. The way you conduct yourself on the platform will indicate relaxed and in control. Do not lean or slouch.
4. Wear appropriate facial expressions to show feelings and emotions.
5. Pronounce the words correctly and speak clearly for your message to be understood.
6. Pause at key points to let the message sink.

Dealing with stage fright or anxiety

1. Know your topic by doing adequate and thorough research. You will be sure of
2. I would present accurate information and be able to answer questions asked by audience members.
3. Practice delivering your speech several times. This helps you be sure of your organisation of the main points.
4. Do some physical exercises like press-ups, push walls, etc. to reduce anxiety.
5. Use simple relaxation techniques like taking deep breaths, tightening and relaxing your muscles, etc.
6. Wear clothes that you feel confident in. When you feel good about of you feel, your confidence level is boosted. You don’t need to adjust your clothes or hair during your speech.
7. Spot friendly faces in the crowd. These are people who give you positive feedback (e.g., nodding, smiling). Such faces encourage you to speak.
8. Try to hide your anxiety. For example, when the mouth goes dry, drink some water.

Factors to consider before giving a speech

1. The age of the person she is speaking to
2. The relationship — formal, informal. Casual to both interlocutors
3. The topic of discussion and how it relates to both.
4. The language the other person addresses you in

How the audience can make one fail in a speech

1. Listeners will lead to my failure if they keep walking in and out of the debate room.
2. If the listeners keep murmuring as I speak
3. If the listeners fail to maintain a meaningful eye, contact with me as I speak.
4. If the audiences keep fidgeting on the chairs
5. If the listeners doze off during my presentation

Negotiation

Negotiation is a strategic discussion that resolves an issue in a way that both parties find acceptable. … By negotiating, all involved parties try to avoid arguing but agree to reach some form of compromise. Negotiations involve some give and take, which means one party will always come out on top of the negotiation.

Principles for effective negotiations

1. Know what you are trying to accomplish.
2. Develop a game plan before the negotiations
3. Study and understand your counterpart.
4. Work towards a win-win outcome.
5. Avoid negotiatingwith yourself.
6. React strongly to an untrustworthy party at the negotiating
7. Remember that it takes two parties to negotiateor renegotiate a deal.

How to carry out a successful negotiation

1. Pay close attention to advance your sound judgment
2. Taking turns to allow the other party to make their points
3. Interrupting and disagreeing politely
4. Asking politely for clarification
5. Make compromise/but accommodate views of another party
6. Showing respect and appreciation of others
7. Greet each other to create rapport and to set the stage for their business transaction.
8. Be diplomatic but firm so long as you don’t disadvantage on the party.
9. Be patience with both parties.
10. Employ Win-win situation-Both parties are satisfied.

Note. Doing the opposite of the above may lead to failure in the negotiation.

GROUP DISCUSSION

Preparation for a Group Discussion

1. Research (re-read the text) on the character.
2. Familiarise themselves with the character, i.e. identify that particular character by reading the set text thoroughly.
3. Select a chairperson to chair the discussion.
4. Encourage all members to contribute to the discussion in an orderly manner.
5. Write down the points.
6. Allow group members to respond to the contributions of the others by asking questions.
7. Giving additional information or general comments.
8. Remember that a discussion is not a debate, and there are no winners or losers.

What you would do during a discussion to ensure effective participation.

1. Listen keenly and critically
2. Acknowledge the contributions of others
3. Keep within the time limit provided by the chairperson
4. Avoid digression from

Ensuring effective delivery of a debate

1. Establish eye contact with individual members especially these on my opponents
2. Employ appropriate non-verbal cues, e.g. gestures, to enhance my message.
3. Apply pregnant pauses to allow my opponents to digest the information given, and to emphasise some points
4. Use rhetorical questions to put across my message strongly.

INTERRUPTION OF A CONVERSATION

An interruption in a speech occurs when one person breaks in to interject while another person is still talking.

Circumstances that may cause interruption.

1. If you didn’t hear what the speaker said.
2. When you strongly disagree with the speaker.
3. When you strongly support the speaker.
4. When you wish the speaker to clarify an unclear issue.
5. When you want to make an addition to the speaker’s point.
6. When the speaker has misrepresented certain known facts.
7. Circumstances that one may interrupt in a conversation:
8. If you didn’t hear what the speaker said.
9. When you strongly disagree with the speaker.
10. When you wish the speaker to clarify an unclear issue
11. When you want to make an addition to the speaker’s point
12. When the speaker has misrepresented certain known facts
13. To seek clarification.
14. When the speaker gives information that is not correct
15. When the speaker has overlooked significant facts
16. To ask him/her to project the voice

State expressions of interrupting politely.

1. Excuse me for the interruption
2. Please Sir/ madam
3. I beg your pardon
4. Sorry to interrupt
5. Pardon me, but…..
6. Do you mind……?
7. excuse me please
8. allow me to say
9. May I ask…….

How to know it your turn to speech

1. When the speaker uses a long pause.
2. Use of body language that shows the speaker is ready to switch roles e.g. nod of the head, looking at you.
3. Tonal variation, rising and falling to show that a speaker has come to the end of their statement. Selects you by name and asks a question to the whole group.
4. Prediction of the speaker’s completion point.

FORMAL INTERVIEWS

A formal meeting in which one or more persons question, consult, or evaluate another person: a job interview. a meeting or conversation in which a writer or reporter asks questions of one or more persons from whom material is sought for a newspaper story, television broadcast, etc.

Purpose of interview

The purpose of an interview is twofold: It shows the employer what you can do for the company, and it gives you an opportunity to assess whether your qualifications and career ambitions align with the position. … When both parties listen intently and speak accurately, there is much to gain from the job interview process.

Characteristic of interview

In what follows, we examine five characteristics of interviews:

1. goal-driven,
2. question–answer,
3. structured,
4. controlled,

Interviews are generally more goal-driven than other types of communication, especially those taking place between two people.

How to ensure success in an interview

Be relaxed with upright posture

1. Eye meaningful eye contact with the interviewer
2. Have a friendly but formal smile
3. Be loud enough or audible
4. Ensure all documents are in order
5. Proper grooming
6. Keep time- arrive in time
7. Do research on the institution
8. Appropriate dressing
9. Be calm
10. Maintain an upright sitting posture

What can make you flop/fail in an interview?

1. I might have been unable to maintain meaningful eye contact with the interviewers
2. I might have arrived late for the interview
3. I may have been inappropriately dressed for the interview
4. I may have failed to present all my documents when asked to
5. I might have spoken negatively/ill about my previous employer/colleagues, which might have painted a negative picture.
6. I might have failed to answer all the questions as asked/ I might have lied during the interview. Avoid falling foul of the following:
7. I might have given simple yes/no as an answer.
8. I might have spoken negatively about your previous employer.

 What to do before an interview:

1. Ensure you have arranged documents in the right order
2. Switch off the mobile phone
3. If anxious can breathe in and out
4. I will pray before entering the interview room.
5. Psyche oneself about the interview
6. Revise the areas likely to be covered by/ in the interview
7. Consult people who have interviewed/dress rehearsals
8. Read widely on current affairs / professional line
9. Learn about the organisation and what they do, especially in one’s area of interest
10. Pre-visit the area of the interview
11. Knock at the door and wait
12. Arrive slightly before time
13. Grooming – good skincare/modest makeup, neat combed/styled hair, good oral hygiene/brushed teeth
14. Be smartly dressed-well fitting, ironed clothes/be decently dressed.
15. Be formal – clothes that fit the occasion.

What to avoid/shun during the interview:

1. Answering /responding to question ns one does not understand
2. Giving incorrect information
3. Fidgeting in the chair
4. Sitting before being allowed to
5. Using informal language
6. Chewing gum

What would you do during the interview to make sure that you succeed?

1. Greet the panel/interviewer
2. Present my best personality
3. Be courteous
4. Be attentive / listen well
5. Think before answering questions
6. Be concise and precise
7. Remain calm
8. Wear an official smile
9. Appreciate the panel occasionally
10. Say Good-Bye before you leave
11. Sitting in the right upright posture
12. When invited, quietly enter, and wait, don’t sit until you are told to sit.

Expressions the interviewee may use as a way of polite interruption.

1. Pardon me, but…
2. Do you mind.…?
3. Excuse me please…..
4. Allow me to say…
5. May I ask…?

When one should be prompted to breathe in and out before/during an interview

1. Sweating
2. Sitting with hands tightly held together on her chest.
3. Leaning forward on the seat.
4. Not speak clearly.
5. shaking

Telephone conversation

Telephone conversation is a dialogue over the telephone. Conversation the use of speech for informal exchange of views or ideas or information etc.

Phone etiquette is the way you use demeanors to represent yourself to others via phone communication. This includes the way you greet a customer, your body language, tone of voice, word choice, listening skills and how you close a call.

Why is phone etiquette important?

Identifying the tools to achieve proper phone etiquette can help you to:

1. Show professionalism

Communicating your working knowledge to your callers using telephone manners should establish you as professionals worthy of repeat telephone calls or communication.

1. Build a good first impression

Everyone deserves to be treated with respect, and the initial phone call is you’re your chance to show another person how pleasant it is to communicate with you.

1. Increases trust and loyalty

If your face-to-face interactions with another person was initially just a call, the trust between you and you’re the other person may grow

Tips to improve the quality of your phone calls

1. Respond the call within the first two or three rings:

Providing a quick answer to a caller let them know that they are important to you. When people feel valued, they could be more likely to do the same.

1. Identify yourself at the beginning of all calls:

When you identify yourself, it is likely that the next person will feel more comfortable sharing the reason for their call and they’ll know who to ask for next time they call.

1. Let positivity resonate in your voice:

Offering a positive tone of voice builds rapport, as the receiver becomes more open to sharing details about how you can best assist them with their needs. If possible, practice by recording your phone calls. Listen to the call recording, notice your tone and make corrections as necessary.

1. Be keen on your body language:

When you hear the phone ring, it may be beneficial to immediately sit up straight and smile before answering. Your voice will likely sound friendlier and light to the person if you practice changing your body language.

1. Minimise interruptions:

Minimising interruptions is possible, even in offices with ample foot traffic. Take a moment before answering a call to put aside items you were working on and prepare to give your full attention to your caller. For instance, try turning your back away from your crowded places when you answer phone calls, this way other individuals in the room will know you are unavailable to assist them while you are on the telephone.

1. listen actively and take notes:

When listening actively, it can be beneficial to give periodic affirmations that you understand the person calling.

1. Always be honest:

Honesty is more important than trying to make somebody happy. If there’s something you know you can’t do for them, make them aware that you cannot perform the task they are requesting. Deliver the honest message in a polite and sympathetic way and somebody may still have a positive experience with you after the call is over, even though you could not meet all of their needs.

1. Request the caller before placing them on hold:

You may need to place a caller on hold to get more information for them. Asking the caller before placing them on hold allows them to know you are working on assisting them to the best of your ability and it displays professional courtesy.

1. Minimise emotional responses:

Keep your tone of voice positive. Find a break in the conversation and ask the caller politely if you may place them on hold. While they are on hold, take two deep breaths and remember to be objective and empathetic when faced with a challenging caller.

1. Make sure the callers’ needs are met before closing the call:

Making sure you meet the caller’s needs is usually your goal when answering a phone call. Make sure the caller’s needs are met. Asking if the need is met or if they have questions is a great opportunity to be proactive and provide further clarification.

Avoid doing the following when you answer the phone call

1. Skip the speaker phone. It’s convenient, sure but doesn’t give your callers the sound quality they deserve.
2. Ditch the chewing gum you may not be heard clearly.
3. Avoiddistractions such as background noise.
4. Eliminate contradictions when speaking it may portray dishonesty.
5. Don’t whisper as it makes you inaudible unless your life is threatened.
6. Don’t shout on call, this is a sign of impoliteness.
7. Donot use poor equipment as this causes inconveniences.

To use a phone effectively

1. Ensure you have enough time to pass the message
2. Move to a quiet place. Too much noise will distract your attention.
3. Think through exactly what you want to say, and you may jot down some notes if possible

In a telephone conversation, always remember to

1. Identify yourself at the beginning of the call.
2. Speak clearly and slowly, especially when leaving the message.
3. Speak with a low tone of voice. Be sure to know how loud you may be.
4. Always end with a pleasantry, for example,’ I will call you later.
5. Let the caller hang up first not the person called.
6. Stay away from others while talking on the phone. They do not need to hear your private conversation.

What would you put into consideration when taking down a phone message?

1. Time of call
2. Date of the call
3. Caller’s details (name and occupation)
4. The message
5. If no message left, when the caller will call again

DEBATE

A debate is an official discussion on a particular matter in a public meeting or legislative assembly, in which opposing arguments are put forward and which usually ends with a vote.

The aim of a debate is to convince the opposition that you are right. When the two sides agree on the subject or when one side’s arguments are more convincing than the other side that is when the debate comes to a close.

Importance of debate

Debates improving rigorous of higher-order and critical thinking skills. It enhances the ability to structure and organise thoughts while increasing learners’ analytical, research and note-taking skill. Furthermore, it improves learners’ ability to form a balanced, informed arguments and to use reasoning as evidence.

Effective debate happens when;

1. Purpose of listening keenly and take notes where necessary.
2. Allow turn taking so that one maintains the speaker role while the other persons speaks.
3. Interrupt politely to show respect to the speaker.
4. Respect personal space so that one does not feel threatened
5. Appreciate other people’s contributions because everything said is important in one way or the other.
6. Maintain a pleasant tone
7. Be courteous as this proves that the speaker is good mannered.
8. Maintain polite language i.e. avoid the use of abusive and intimidating language.
9. Acknowledgment of other people’s good points is important to show that the person is valued.

How to carry out a debate effectively

Proper preparation before a debate

1. Try and do thorough research on the topic of discussion and write an outline of the points I will raise, for reference.
2. Find out points/facts about the opponents’ side in anticipation of their argument.
3. Rehearse the presentation in front of a mirror or friends.
4. do physical exercises and take a deep breath before the presentation to release nervousness
5. ensure appropriate grooming to enhance my confidence

Effective delivery in a debate

1. establish meaningful eye contact with individual members especially these on my opponents’
2. Ensure that you employ appropriate non-verbal cues, e.g., gestures to enhance my message.
3. Apply pauses to allow my opponents to digest the information given, and to emphasise some points.
4. Use rhetorical questions to put across my message emphatically. There is an appropriate turn-taking.
5. Polite interruption when the speakers have to, e.g., Sorry for disruption, just a moment.
6. Everyone has his say, and none of them monopolises the conversation.
7. There is a concession of space if a speaker finds himself interrupting another.
8. Why will it be necessary for you to look directly at the audience when debating?
9. To get feedback from the audience /know how they are reacting to your presentation
10. To give your audience a positive impression about yourself
11. To impress their moods

What makes this conversation effective?

1. There is appropriate turn – taking.
2. Polite interruption when the speakers have to e.g. Sorry for interruption, just a moment.
3. Everyone has his say and none of them monopolises the conversation.
4. There is concession of space if a speaker finds himself interrupting another e.g. Sorry Steward. You were saying something…

Possible in short coming in conversations

1. Use of impolite language
2. Poor turn-taking skills.
3. Unnecessary interruption.

PERSONAL SPACE

It the physical space immediately surrounding someone, into which an encroachment can make one feel threatened or uncomfortable. A personal space may also be defined as the region surrounding a person which he/she regards as psychologically theirs. Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when their personal space is intruded.

Functions of personal space.

It is the basis of protecting one against an actual physical threat. It protects one from danger.

In a day to day life situation, it is the distance that you like to keep between you and other people in order to feel comfortable, for example when you are talking to someone or travelling on a bus or train can objected to this invasion of her personal space.

 Five tips for coping when personal space issues occur in your life:

1. Be kind to your friends. You have more freedom to invade the personal space of people you know well rather than strangers, but do not take for granted the likelihood that they will not mind you closing in on them. Look around you. Be respectful and attentive to boundaries, especially in close spaces, and especially when there’s no easy escape.
2. Confront for your personal space if you can, but not if you cannot. If confrontation is not an option, find ways to distract yourself or at least send out signals that the invasion is not appreciated.
3. Be aware of the sensory intrusions you create by wearing strong scents, talking too loud in public places, and asking overly personal questions of strangers.
4. Learn to read body language. Sensitise yourself to recognise the signals that you have gotten too close by observing the other person’s behavior. If you sense you have overstepped, back off.
5. Personal space is a key for socialisation, and easy to manage once you understand its importance consider this.
6. Stop feeling guilty.

What to do if someone invades your personal space.

1. Acknowledge that somebody has invaded your personal space.
2. Lean away from the person or take a step back, hoping that they will take the hint and give you the personal space.
3. Be frank and candid by saying that you are uncomfortable being so close to the person.
4. Politely explain why you need more space for yourself.

To observe personal space, one should:

1. Never touch anyone you do not know.
2. Stand at least 4 feet away from a person unless you know him or her well.
3. Not lean on someone because it makes one uncomfortable.
4. When you walk into an auditorium or theatre that isn’t crowded, leave an extra seat between you and the next person.
5. Never go through anyone else personal belongings.
6. Do not fling your arms around someone’s shoulder or slap someone back unless you know him or her.
7. Do not cut in front of people in a line/queue.
8. Do not enter a room or an office without knocking the door.

STRESS AND INTONATION

Stress is the relative emphasis that is be given to certain syllables in a word, or certain words in a sentence. A syllable or a word is stressed when it is said louder or longer than the rest.

Stress at the word level

Rules of word stress

1. a) For two-syllable nouns and adjectives, stress the first, e.g. produce
2. b) For verbs with two syllables and prepositions, emphasise the second syllable, for example produce
3. c) Words with three syllables.

Those ending in –er, -ly, emphasis put on the first syllable.

Stress the first, for those ending in consonants and in –y.

Stress the last syllable if the word ends in –ee, -ese, -eer, -ique, -ette, for example, look at the ones with the suffixes below, where stress is placed on the second,

INTONATION

It is the rise and fall of voice when one is speaking.

There are two kinds of intonation: rising and falling.

Use arrows to show the intonation ↘shows falling intonation, ↗ shows a rising one.

In language, intonation is variation in spoken pitch when used, it has a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker, signaling the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of questions, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction.

Falling Intonation

Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence.

1. Statements, for Example, I like Melvin. It is nice meeting you.

W/h questions that requires an explanation e.g.  How old are you?

1. Commands

Give me my book.

Sharpen your pencil.

Exclamatory sentences

What a beautiful girl!

Rising intonation

When you lower pitch and is used

In questions that need yes or no as an answer e.g.

E.g. Did you go home?

SILENT LETTERS

Silent b

aplomb, bomb, climb, comb, crumb, debt, debtor, doubt, doubtful, dumb, jamb, lamb, limb, numb, plumb, plumber, subtle, subtlety, succumb, thumb, tomb, womb

Silent c

abscess, acknowledge, acquire, acquaintance, acquiesce, acquit, adolescent, ascend, ascent, blackguard, conscience, conscious, crescent, descend, descendant, descent, disciple, fascinate, fluorescent, isosceles, miscellaneous, muscles, obscene, resuscitate, scenario, scene, scent scissors, victual

Silent d

Dodge, grudge, handkerchief, handsome, hedge, pledge sandwich, Wednesday, ma’am (madam)

Silent e

Bridge, catalogue, clothes, fugue plague, plaque, tongue, vegetables

B is not pronounced after M at the end of the word. Bomb, dumb B is usually not pronounced before T at the end of a root word example, debt, doubt, subtle root word; debtor suffix

C is not pronounced in combination sc if followed by e, I, or y scent, scissors, fascinate, and scythe

C usually not pronounced before the letters k, or q: acquaintance, acknowledge.

Silent CH- yacht

D is not pronounced in combination D.G., grudge, and badge

D is not pronounced in handkerchief, handsome, sandwich, Wednesday.

E Is not pronounced at the end of words but elongates the sound of the vowel before it. B. hop- hope, mat–mate, sin-sine, mop- mope, exception: giraffe,

1a. when G precedes H in a single syllable, the G.H. is silent.: high, sigh, night, might, sight, tight, flight, weight, sleigh, ought, dough, knight, tonight, bought, naughty, thought, although, though, bough, though, highway, daughter, neighbour, throughout, thoroughly.

1b. when G precedes H at the beginning of the word, the H is silent: aghast, Ghana, ghastly, ghetto, ghost, ghost-writer, and ghoul

2. G has its own sound when followed by A, O or U: game, go, wagon, gum, gun, garnet.
3. G has the sound of J when followed by E, I or Y: gem, germ, gin, gym, genus, ginger, budget, region, Egypt, judge, advantage, exaggerate.

Exception: gear, get, geese, finger, anger, begin, girl, give, giggle.

Silent g as in align, alight, assign, benign, campaign, champagne, cognac, cologne, consign, design, diaphragm, feign, foreign, gnarl, gnash, gnat, gnaw, high, light, malign, reign, resign, sign.

Silent h as in ache, aghast, anchor, archeology, architect, archive, chaos, character, characteristic, charisma, chemical, chemist, chemistry, chemotherapy, chlorine, choir, cholera, chord, choreograph, chorus, Christian, Christmas, chrome, echo, exhaust, ghastly, ghetto, ghost, ghoul, herb, hour, honor, honest, loch,melancholy, mechanical monarch, monochrome, orchestra, orchid, psychic, rhinestone, rhinoceros, rhyme, rhythm, scheme, school, shepherd, stomach, technical, why,

G not pronounced before N in a single syllable: align, design, gnome, cologne exception: igneous, magnet, cognitive, signature – G.N. does not constitute one syllable.

G is not pronounced before M: diaphragm G.H. in a single syllable is sometimes pronounced like an F: rough, tough, laugh, enough, cough, draught

Except in compound words: doghouse

H not pronounced when it comes after W: what, why, when

H Not pronounced at the beginning of many words unvoiced: hour, honor, except hill, history, height, happy, hereditary

H not pronounced after C, G. or R: choir, chorus, ghastly, ghoul, aghast, echo, rhinoceros, rhythm, rhinestone

Letter L is silent:

1) When L precedes D in the same syllable: could, should, would

2) When L is between A and F in the same syllable: behalf, halfback, half-life, half mast

3) When L is between A and K in the same syllable: balk, beanstalk, calk, catwalk, shoptalk, sidewalk

4) When L is between O and K in the same syllable: folk, folklore, folktale etc.

5) When L is between U and K in the same syllable: caulk,

6) When L is between A and M in the same syllable: balm, calm, becalm, palm, palmist, qualm

7) L.M. is pronounced in the following words: culm, helm, elm, overwhelm, realm, film, whelm

8) When L is between A and V in the same syllable: calve, halve, technique, technocrat, technology, thyme, what, when, whether, which, while, white, who, whole

Silent I

Business, parliament

Silent k

knack, knapsack, knave, knead, knee, kneecap, kneel, knell, knew, knickers, knickknacks, knife, knight, knit, knob, knock, knock-out knoll, knot, know, knowledge, knuckle, knurl

Silent l

Almond, alms, balm, calf, calm, chalk, colonel, could, folk, half, Holmes, palm, Palmolive, psalm, Lincoln,

Malcolm, qualm, salmon, should, solder, talk, walk, would, yolk

Silent n

N not pronounced after M at the end of the word: autumn, column, condemn, damn, hymn, solemn, government

Silent p

Cupboard, corps, coup, psyche, psychology, pneumatic, pneumonia, psalm, pseudo, pseudonym, psychiatrist, psychiatry, psychotherapy, receipt

K is not pronounced before N at the beginning of the word.

L not pronounced after vowels A, O, U: calm, yolk, chalk, folk, and balm exception: halo, bulk, sulk, hold, sold, fold, mould.

P not pronounced at the beginning of the words using the combination P.S., P.T., P.N.: psychotic, pseudonym, ptyalin

P.H. pronounced sometimes like F: paragraph, sophomore, telephone, asphalt, telegraph, alphabet, epiphany, pharmacy, phenol.

Q makes two sounds:

K.W. in queen, qualm, quiet K in liquor, exchequer

Q has no sound of its own. It is always paired with U and has the sound of K.W. quick, quack, squad

Silent s

Aisle, debris, island, isle, islet, patois.

Silent t

apostle,  beret, bristle, buffet ,bustle, butcher, castle catch, Christ, Christmas, crochet, debut, depot, fasten, glisten, gourmet, hasten, hustle, jostle, kitchen, listen, match, moisten, mortgage, often, nestle, rapport, rustle, scratch, soften, thistle, trestle, watch, whistle, wrestle, witch

Silent u

biscuit, build, built, business, catalogue, circuit,  disguise, gauge, guard, guess, guest, guidance, guide, guild, guile, guilt, guilty, guitar, plague, plaque,  tongue etc.

Silent w

Answer, awry, playwright, sword, two, wrack, wrangle, wrangler, wrap, wrapper, wrath, wreath,

S not pronounced before L: island, islet, aisle also not pronounced after G and before a vowel: guest, guitar, guidance, guard

W not pronounced at the beginning of the word before R: wrap as in wreck, wreckage, wren, wrench, wrest, wrestle, wretch, wretched, wriggle, wring, wrinkle, wrist, writ, write, writhe, wrong, wrote, wrought, wrung, wry, sword wrist, wrong

X sounds Z at the beginning of a word: xylem, xylophone, xenon, xerography, xenophobia.

2a: X sounds K.S. in the middle or end of the word. Boxes, tax, orthodox, prefixes, paradox, climax, Phoenix. Reflexes, larynx, orthodox, coax, minx, appendix, crucifix, smallpox

X has no sound of its own. It borrows sound from the consonants Z, KS, GZ

X sounds K.S. in words where X precedes C: excavator, exceed, excellence, except, excerpt, excess, exchange, exchequer, excise, excited, exclaim, exclude, exclusive, excommunicate

X sounds K.S. in words where X precedes P: expand, expanse, expatriate, expedite, expect, expend, expensive, expire, explore, explosive, export, expose, express

X sounds G.Z. when it precedes the vowels A, E, I and O in the middle of the word: example, examine, exact, exaggerate, exaltation, exam, exhaust (silent h), executive, exemplar, exempt, exert, exhibit, (silent h) exhilarate.

X is silent in faux, Sioux, roux

Plural form of French derived words: beaux, chateaux, flambeaux, tableaux, trousseaux – the X sounds Z Silent Z as in Rendezvous, laissez-faire

HOMOPHONES IN ENGLISH

Homophones are words pronounced the same but have different meanings and spelling.

Aren’t / aunt

bread / bred

see / sea

cent / sent

eye / I

hour / our

know / no

knows / nose

right / write / rite

son / sun

they’re / their / there

we’ve / weave

where / wear

which / witch

would / wood

Bored/board

Break/brake

Ceiling/sealing

Cereal/serial

Done/dun

Flew/flu

Hear/here

Heard/herd

He’ d/heed

He ‘ll/heel

Metal/mettle

Missed/mist

Non/nun

Passed/past

Read (past tense)/red

Saw/sore

Sight/site/cite

Straight/strait

Sure/shore

Taught/taught

Through/threw

Throne/throne

We ‘d/weed

We ‘ll/wheel

Weigh/way

Whole/hole

Who’s/whose

Won/one

Worn/warn

Wrote/rote

Aisle/I’ll

Allowed/aloud

Banned/band

Bare/bear

chased/chased

Cruise/crews

Dye/die

Earn/urn

Fare/fair

Farther/father

Flour/flower

Guessed/guest Medal/meddle

Muscle/mussel

Queue/cue

Route/root

Warn/worn

Weight/wait

Allowed/aloud

Bass/base

Bases/basis

Bury/berry

Chews/choose

Coup/coup

Genes/jeans

Desert (V)/ dessert

Draught/draft

Fir/fur

Flaw/floor

Idle/idol

Knight/night

Knot/not

Leased/least

Pause/paws

Scent/sent/cent

Seize/seas/sees

Sighed/side

Tear/tier

Weight/wade

Rap/wrap

Alter/altar

Ascent/assent

Aural/oral

Bawl/ball

Berth/birth

Boar/bore

Bough/bow

Buoy/boy

Cache/cash

Censor/sensor

Chord/cord

Chute/shoot

Coarse/course

Corps/core

Cue/queue

Due/dew

Feint/faint

Fowl/foul

Grate/great

Groan/grown

Haul/hall

Hay/hey

Heir/air

Herd/heard

Hoarse/horse

Hymn/him

Aisle/I’ll

Profit/prophet

Medal/meddle

Style/stile

Symbol/cymbal

Knead/need

Manor/manner

Martial/marshal

Minor/miner

Reign/rain

Straight/strait

Tier/tear

Tier/tear

Tow/toe

Wrest/rest

ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS

A vowel is a letter representing a speech sound made with the vocal tract open, specifically the letters A, E, I, O, U.

Short vowels

The most common sound for each vowel is its “short” sound:

/æ/ as in apple, pan, or mat,

/ɛ/as in elephant, pen, or met,

ĭ, pronounced /ɪ/as in insect, pin, or mitt,

/ɒ/ as in ostrich, upon, or motto,

/ʌ/ as in umbrella, pun, or mutt.

Long vowels

The alphabet sounds (when the vowel “says its name”) are called “long vowels.” We call them ‘long’ because we hold them longer than the short sounds, but they are completely different sounds– not a longer version of the same sound.

/eɪ/ as in ate or mate,

/iː/ as in eat or meat (or meet or mete– all pronounced the same),

Pronounced /aɪ/ in mite or might.

Pronounced /oʊ/as in oats, mote or moat, and

Pronounced /juː/ in mute.

SUMMARY WRITING

A summary is a brief statement or restatement of main points, especially as a conclusion to a work: a summary of a chapter. A brief is a detailed outline, by heads and subheads, of a discourse (usually legal) to be completed: a brief for an argument.

How to produce a summary

• Read the material to be summarised and be sure you understand it.

1. Outline the major points.

• Write a first draft of the summary without looking at the material.

1. Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.

• Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the length of the original.
• Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or interpretations into the summary. This means

1. You have to be very careful of your word choice.

• Write in prose – not point form.

Note Making

• The following tips will come in handy when making notes:

1. Read the material carefully and thoroughly.

• Underline the key sentences as you read. This will help in forming the title.

1. Make a rough note of the main points in a logical sequence.

• Write the final notes.

What to remember when making summary

• Should be short and to the point.

1. Contain all the important and relevant information.

• Should have information systematically divided and subdivided.

1. Should have a short title. Avoid long sentences as titles.

• Must be written in point .

READING

• Bad reading habits include

1. I am moving the lips when reading.

• She is vocalising the words.

1. Reading one word at a time.

• Pointing at the words with a finger as one reads.

Good listening skills include

• Ability to quickly and accurately grasp the issues at stake

1. Ability to comprehend the conflicting views of a matter Capacity to assimilate, interpret, and use figures and facts in a manner to support a given picture.

• Determining the bottom line beyond which he couldn’t go

1. Exercise patience and restraint

• Ability to extract information without being offensive

1. Maintain confidentiality