Short-term and long-term causes of World War I
A series of conflicts defined the late 18th and early 19th century Austria-Hungary empire- a crisis that was considered resolved by the Compromise of 1867 (Noble, 643) that sought to regulate the relationship between Hungary and Austria. In Hungary, the Magyar ruled experienced increasing challenges highlighted in the opposition of Magyarization by other nationalities. Magyarization imposed the Magyar language on the Hungarian residents while denying different nationalities the right to express themselves in their languages either within the school setting or in an administrative capacity. Nationalist leaders were either censored or imprisoned by the Hungarian government. This led to the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s widespread resentment by the various nationalists’ groups that existed within Hungary and Austria (Noble, 703).
However, the in-fighting within the Austro-Hungarian Empire can not- on their own- be solely responsible for the carnage that resulted in World War I after the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in a remote area of the Balkans. Instability and upheaval had been characteristic of both world politics and international between 1880 and 1914. For instance, in 1882, the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed a military alliance to counter the “Triple Entente” comprised of the Franco-Russian Alliance and later Great Britain in 1907 (Noble, 706). Such kinds of power alignments within Europe set the stage for the conflict that ensued in 1914- between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.
Power alignments in the late 19th century ensured that the allied countries would rally toward their partner’s defense in case of conflict or an invasion. However, for Germany, things would get complicated as two of their allies (within the Three Emperors’ Leagues of 1873 and 1874) – Austria-Hungary and Russia- began fighting over the control of the Balkans. Germany had formed another treaty with Austria and Italy- an alliance termed as the Triple Alliance. To quell the fears held by Russia over the preference of Austria by Germany, Bismarck- German’s chancellor- signed the Reinsurance Treaty in 1887, which assured Russia that German would remain neutral in case Austria was to attack Russia. However, this treaty would not be renewed after the resignation of Bismarck in 1890. The lapse of the Reinsurance Treaty gave rise to the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894- an agreement that assured both parties of mutual support in the case of a German invasion (Noble 706).
The division of the Great Powers of Europe into two entities- the Triple Alliance and the Franco-Russian alliance- was one of World War I’s long-term causes since it set the stage for a drawn-out and massive conflict in case of rivalry between any two parties from either of the alliances. The fight for control over the Balkans by both Russia and Austria compounded to this problem as another long-term cause for the Great War. Britain had conflicts with Russia and France due to competing interests over colonies in Asia and Africa. However, an increase in Germany’s naval force as a result of their Weltpolitik policy by Wilhelm II led to the loss of British goodwill- Britain depended on its expansive navy to secure itself economically. An expansion of the German navy was viewed as a threat to Britain’s security. After the agreement with Russia and France over their rivalries in their colonies, Britain joined the alliance to complete the Triple Entente (Noble 706).
Given the background as mentioned earlier, the Balkans’ volatile situation became the highlight of the international community with several Great Powers increasing their arms expenditure on at the onset of the 20th century up till the verge of World War I. For instance, between 1904 and 1913, Russian and French arms increased by over 80% while Germany and Italy increased by 120% and 100%, respectively (Noble, 706). Across Europe, very few leaders thought that World War I would take as long as it did. Based on the Austro-Prussian war (1866) and the Franco-Prussian war (1870), most Western powers were not afraid of war.
The territorial rivalry between Russia and Austria sparked an international disaster. Serbia- ruled by a pro-Russian government- began an anti-Austrian crusade intended to mobilize Slavs living in the Balkans under its rule. Amid escalating tensions and anti-Austrian propaganda in Serbia, Archduke Francis Ferdinand is assassinated Bosnian-Serb nationalist in Sarajevo- an Austrian-ruled section of Bosnia. Ferdinand was the heir to the Habsburg throne. This led to the invasion of Serbia by Austria under the pretext of military action for Habsburg heir’s assassination. On July 23, Serbia was given an ultimatum by Austria, deliberately worded to draw Serbia into battle- Germany, in fear of losing an ally, urged Austria to ensure their victory. On July 28, Austria declared war in Serbia (Noble, 708).
The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and the invasion of Serbia by Austria became the short-term causes of World War I. This invasion triggered a series of escalating events- Russia came to the aid of its ally Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia and invaded France through Belgium, Belgium- a neutral party- defended its sovereignty, Italy and Britain would later join the war in support of their respective allies. Within a span of months, European Powers were drawn into an all-out war referred to as the Great War.
Category B
Option 3
The rise of Hitler to power in Nazi Germany
In the late 19th century, Germany was under emperor Kaiser’s rule- even though the country had the people’s electoral representatives. Over the years, Emperor Wilhelm II (1888-1918) introduced a foreign policy geared toward attaining world dominance- Weltpolitik (world politics). The prospect of new, assertive power within central Europe cultivated a hotbed of political tensions- Germany’s neighbors became troubled by the new foreign policy. In contrast, the German nationals showed overwhelming support for the new policy (Noble, 702). This aggressive foreign policy would be emulated by Hitler’s calls for national sovereignty and ethnic self-determination.
The National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party) was a pretty small and unpopular political group in the decade preceding Hitler’s victory in 1933 over the Weimar Republic. After the Great War (1914-1919), and Germany’s defeat by Allied forces, there was an aura of anger and resentment within Germany. Adolf Hitler was, around 1920, an Austrian-born corporal within the ranks of Germany during World War I. Being both a soldier in the frontlines and a courier, Adolf Hitler understood the pain and anguish of World War 1 humiliation (Noble, 780). He managed to capitalize on the Germans’ anger and resentment when he joined politics in 1919. The Nazi Party emerged from Munich’s turbulent situation after World War I humiliation- the capital became a hotbed of the radical right with agitations of nationalism with militant anti-communist groups (Noble, 780). Hitler climbed up the party ranks pretty quickly to become the party’s leader and, in February of 1920, changed the name of the party to the Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party). Hitler’s new party embraced a radical party policy- a platform that instilled the belief in race science and the supremacy of the Aryan race (German blood). Citizenship what’s to be earned based on “German blood.”
Hitler illustrated charismatic leadership from the onset-and his rise to power was influenced by post-war unrest in Germany. A significant portion of German nationals subscribed to Hitler’s ideologies by the early 1920s. The masses were frustrated by the runaway hyperinflation that was characteristic of post-war Germany between 1919 and mid-1920s (Noble, 762). The shock of the Great War had given rise to a sense of disillusionment and even a decline that presented in many forms in the culture of the 1920s- discussions about the rationality of the Western culture took center stage with an avid call for nationalism (Noble, 768). After a failed coup on November 23, 1923, Hitler’s trial for treason and subsequent imprisonment catapulted him into a national figure. Based on their nationalist propaganda, Hitler and the Nazi Party could brand the Weimar republic as an outcast- a “Jew Government.” In prison, Hitler’s book, Mein Kempf (My Battle) (1925), developed a theory that the conflict between races was their catalyst of history and Germany’s Aryan race needed to secure a Lebensraum (Living Space) across Eastern Europe to defend their empire (Noble, 781).
In essence, in a time of unrest and widespread resentment in post-war Germany, Hitler’s conservative views catapulted him into power in 1933. During the early 1920s, there was a massive swelling of German conservatives, and Hitler utilized the freedoms and rights enshrined in the Weimar Constitution to advance his nationalist propaganda- freedom of speech, rights to assemble, and freedom of the press. Due to the polarization and lack of consensus during this period, within the electorate, the Weimar Republic buckled and gave in to the pressures of the multiparty system that allowed for an unstable coalition in government- something Hitler turned into his advantage by championing the sadist propaganda of the Nazi Party (Noble, 764). However, in the late 1920s, Germany began recovering from post-war economic depression, and businesses began booming (Noble, 755). This led to decreased support for the Nazi party and its hate and resentment propaganda. In the 1928 elections, the Nazi Party only managed to garner about 2.6% of the vote (Noble, 781).
In 1929, a worldwide Great Depression began after the stock market crash in the United States in October. A significant percentage of the German population was adversely affected by the free-falling economy. The Weimar democracy was ill-equipped to handle the problems produced by the Great Depression, and this radically changed the German political framework (Noble, 781). World leaders and democratic institutions appeared not to have any actionable solutions that would cure the fragile nature of the new international economic order post-World War I (Noble, 772). However, extreme political parties, such as Hitler’s Nazi party, seemed to propose clear solutions to the crisis. As a solution to the global financial crisis, the Communist Party in Germany suggested that the country structure its government like that of the Soviet Union. The Communist government in the Soviet Union- Bolsheviks- controlled all Russian lands and industries.
This solution offered by the Weimar republic upset several conservative elites who were against the takeover of German lands by the Communist party and the redistribution of German wealth across German nationals. The conservatives were also too eager to depose the ruling coalition (Noble, 781). The Nazi Party rejuvenated their racist propaganda- blaming the Communists, Jews, pacifists, and liberals for Germany’s economic crisis. Their campaign slogans won over most German populations who identified with rallying calls such as “Work, Freedom, and Food.” The Nazi Party gave promises about ending the depression, restoring Germany’s standing in the world, and the pride of German nationals.
Based on the above strategies, the party was able to amass a genuine following within the German’s surging nationalists and conservatives population. The rise of the Nazi Party was more of a symptom of the Weimar Republic than a cause for its collapse. The party enjoyed support from Germans who were threatened economically by the growing unemployment in the early 1930s. However, the party also attracted a national outlook- a broad, reasonably diverse electoral support base. Their support base consisted of small-scale shopkeepers, artisans, university students, and civil servants (Noble, 782).
In the 1930 elections, The Nazi Party faired pretty well in the Reichstag elections (parliamentary elections), gathering 18.3% of the total vote- a significant improvement from the 2.6 percent in the previous election (Noble, 781). This proved to be another major breakthrough for the Nazi Party. In 1932, Hitler ran for the presidential election in the spring and lost to Hindenburg- who was reelected by the people- with Hitler coming in second. However, in the Reichstag elections, the Nazi Party won more seats in the legislature- beating their closest competitor (Social Democrats) by 75 seats. In January 1933, based on conservative elites’ advice who envisioned a break from the fragmented parliamentary system toward some form of authoritarian government, Hindenburg decided to name Hitler chancellor on January 30, 1933. This was an arrangement fervently championed by conservative elites interested in using the Nazi’s mass support for anti-democratic purposes (Noble, 782).
After he was elected chancellor in 1933, Hitler began a revolution from within the government to create a new regime- The Third Reich. Fearing that a communist revolution was inevitable, Hitler clamped down on leftist leaders by restricting civil liberties and imprisoning dissidents- including the entire Communist party parliamentary delegation (Noble, 782). On the Reichstag election of March 5, 1933, the Nazi Party could not win a majority in parliament and therefore leaned on the support of the Catholic Center Party and Nationalists to pass through the Reichstag an act that enabled Hitler to bypass both the Reichstag and the president in the making of laws. Hitler’s laws transformed the German government, politics, and public life in fundamental ways. By July 1933, the Nazi Party had consolidated its hold on national politics and was declared the only legal party in Germany (Noble, 783). After Hindenburg’s death in August of 1934, the offices of the president and the chancellor were merged into one office- Hitler had finally managed to consolidate his power and hold in Germany- possessing an unprecedented power. His regime enjoyed public support due to his charismatic and decisive leadership style- something alien to the parliamentary system of the Weimar republic that was characterized by constant paralysis. He also won over public approval by surmounting the depression and repudiating the major terms of the hated Versailles Treaty (Noble, 785),
Identifications
Social Darwinism
As a doctrine, social Darwinism borrows from Darwin’s theory of evolution, which argues that natural selection as a principle offered the best explanation for the extraordinary diversity of life forms. It championed the ceaseless competition among species as the critical determinant of evolutionary change. Social Darwinism is a school of thought that extends Darwin’s theory of evolution onto human society by justifying existing inequalities as part of natural selection within human affairs. It champions the development of a high state of civilization through race’s struggle with an eventual survival of the physically and mentally fitter race (Week 5 reading, page 8).
Western Front, 1914-18
The Western Front was the main theatre of war during World War I and stretched nearly 440 miles from the Swiss frontier with France to the North Sea coast in Belgium. The German army opened the Western Front in a bid to advance into France through Belgium and Luxembourg. However, the Battle of Marne derailed the German’s advancement with the Allied forces claiming victory over the German troops in the West. The front featured trench warfare with fortified trenches, dug-outs, and barbed-wire fences with minimal movement between 1914 and 1918 despite the numerous persistent attempts by both sides to break through (Noble, 715).
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
This treaty consists of the harsh peace talks that Germany imposed on Russia in March 1918 during World War I- the negotiations took place at a German-controlled town called Brest-Litovsk. After the Russian revolution of 1917, the new regime in Russia- Bolshevik government- requested an armistice with Germany to quell the anti-war sentiments back at home. Germany took the opportunity to execute their annexation plan by expanding their territory into Russian Poland and up the Baltic coast of Lithuania and Latvia to secure its peace and sovereignty. European Russia became largely dismembered by the terms of the treaty and left Germany in control of approximately one-third of Russia’s European territory- the Baltic States and Ukraine (Noble, 727).
Sudetenland
Sudetenland was an area of Czechoslovakia inhabited by a majority of ethnic Germans in the period before World War I and during the Austrian occupation by Hitler and the German Nazi regime. This select group of ethnic Germans wanted to become part of the German state since they were considered a minority in the Czechoslovakia state after the Habsburg Empire’s fall. The area consisted of the northern, southern, and western regions of former Czechoslovakia- along the German-Austrian border. The region’s occupants even demanded a plebiscite fronted by the Sudeten Nazi Party to be incorporated into Nazi Germany (Noble, 796). Eventually, Germany undertook an annexation of the Sudetenland based on the Munich agreement that proposed that all Sudeten lands with German majorities be transferred to Germany (Noble, 797).
Battle of Stalingrad
This battle featured a military exchange between the army of Germany and its allies and the army of the Soviet Union during World War II. It was an extension of Operation Barbarossa that had been engineered by the Nazi regime to take over the Soviet Union. The battle was over the control of Stalingrad’s city in Southern Russia- commencing on August 23, 1942, and ending on February 2, 1943. The Battle of Stalingrad proved to be the deepest penetration of German forces into the Soviet Union—and the zenith of Nazi power in Europe (Noble, 807).
III Text/ Context Exercise
A.
In Volume One, Chapter Ten of Hitler’s 1926 book, Mein Kampf, titled the “Causes of Collapse,” he illustrates that the economic depression in Germany at the onset of the 1920s was not entirely a consequence of World War I and the loss suffered by Germany. He also blames the victors- Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia) for the massacre and carnage of World War I citing that Germany wasn’t solely to blame. He attributes this school of thought to the Jews within German ranks (Imperialism, Racism, Social Darwinism, pg 29).
B.
This is an excerpt from the 1931 “Industrialize or Perish” speech given by Joseph Stalin (Head of the Soviet Union) to Bolshevik Industrial Managers. Stalin urges the managers to push forward with the industrial movement and innovations to sustain Russia’s economy and enhance development that would rival other developed countries’ industrial economies. Around the 1930S, Russia was lagging behind other great economies such as the United States, Britain, Japan, and Germany (Imperialism, Racism, Social Darwinism, pg. 34).
C.
Winston Churchill was addressing British elites and nationals about the second World War- agitating and urging for the British to continue resisting the German insurgency on Europe with a rallying call to upholding the tenets of democracy and the rule of law. The war began after the annexation of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, Poland’s invasion, and the conquest of France by Nazi Germany. Fearing their ally’s fate, certain sections of the British elite preferred to offer an armistice to Nazi Germany.
D.
E.
This happened during World War II just before the invasion of Poland. Hitler was persuading the German army, nationals, and the Nazi about the importance of European domination- in this instance, the Poland invasion that began World War I. Nazism believed in the superiority of the Aryan race and the necessity of conquest to secure their freedom and peace (living space). The Germany Army had fine-tuned its ability to mobilize its army quickly using tanks and bombers.
Work Cited
Noble, Thomas., Strauss, Barry., Osheim, Duane., Neuschel, Kristen., Accampo, Elinor.,
Roberts, David., Cohen, William. Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 2014.