CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
Social and emotional learning refers to the process in which adults and children gain and apply the skills and knowledge that is essential to manage their emotions and achieve envisioned goals (Beaty. 2018). This learning process also enables them to be empathetic toward others, have a positive relationship, and make responsible decisions. McGaugh. et al. (1994) carefully speculated that SEL is crucial in developing learners’ experiences far above the academic attainment that facilitates success in educational settings, as well as their careers.
Collaborative for academics (2019) believed that Social and emotional skills are essential in raising a well-rounded, successful student, responsible citizen, and overall productive member of society. In modern times, there is a high call for a classroom to be student-centered and supportive to the individual needs of the learners. The capacities of the student to be able to learn how to depend on various aspects, including a sense of belonging, excellent relationship with the educators and school climate is crucial. Many antisocial behaviors, such as school violence and bullying, can be averted if concerted efforts are undertaken to sharpen student`s social and emotional skills (Verdasca et al. 2017). From various studies conducted, it has been shown that students educated on quality social and emotional skills demonstrate better academic performance, exhibit fewer negative behavior, reduced psychological distress, and portray enhanced attitude and practice (Dusenbury, 2019).
Similarly, social and emotional learning enables individuals to improve in their memory since emotions have a very substantial impact on the cognitive processes in human beings, and these involve how human beings perceive, expand their memory capacity, way of reasoning, and also problem-solving. Besides, social and emotional learning also facilitate encoding and helps in retrieval of information efficiently. Since social and emotional learning theory majorly focuses on the way children and adults acquire and apply skills to manage their emotions and achieve positive goals in their daily lives, SEL helps in developing emotional management and improve competence in communication skills.
In summary, social and emotional learning skills are essential since one can extensively apply them in:
Understanding and managing daily emotions
Setting goals and right paths of achieving them
Increasing their feeling and showing of empathetical characters
Establishing and maintaining a positive relationship with other individuals by making responsible and ethical-guided decisions
From this revelation, it can be evident that social and emotional learning skills can be applied in almost all of the significant fields of daily interactions. For instance, one may use such skills at work to easily associate with teammates and other workers by building positive working relationships. Besides, SEL can also be applied in schools and healthcare environments to guide the process of decision making. Perhaps this can boost the effectiveness of the decision outcomes, by ascertaining that, fairness and other ethical principles are strictly adhered to. Research done by Verdasca et al. (2017), proved that SEL skills could fundamentally be used in schools specifically by students to boost their academic success, reduce the instances of behavioral challenges, prevent regular occasions of emotional distress and to promote positive social behavior during interactions, communications or at work-based environments in future.
Therefore, this chapter outlines and presents research and development that emphasizes social-emotional learning. This chapter also presents a review of the theoretical and empirical framework, along with related literature on social and emotional learning. It is divided into several sections, including the summary, including gaps that are evident in the reviewed research and that ought to be addressed by this study.
Theoretical Framework
Learning in most schools is often influenced by our idea of who the child is and the learning and teaching theories. The goals, the kind of learning needed to achieve those goals, the avenue to deliver the teaching, and the methods used to encourage and maintain the learning process all strongly affect learning (Schellinger. et al. 2011). Interestingly, the theories that are related to social-emotional education have been accorded little discussion. Beck (2013) hypothetically argued that the main theoretical models used are cognitive-behavioral, system, brain research, the emerging science of emotions, hierarchy of needs, and adult learning. These theories will provide valuable information about this study.
Nevertheless, social-emotional learning theory borrows ideas from the foundation of emotional intelligence, which majorly emphasizes the ability to understand and manage emotions by an individual. Therefore individuals with high emotional intelligence will be able to understand well how their emotions can affect others. Similarly, children learning in schools should be very vigilant to ensure there is a complete understanding of one another to enhance their sincerity in achieving their goals in schools.
Cognitive Behavioral Theory
In the 1960s, theoretical and therapeutic models that were generally categorized as “social learning” and “cognitive” gain popularity, especially in the disciplines of education and medicine (Jewell., et al. 2008). Noticeably, no single social learning theory is uniformly accepted. Nonetheless, all the methods share a standard basis, which is their foundation. The models emphasized the complexity of the interaction among cognitive events and processes, overt behavior, affect, and environmental contexts. Djurdjevic., & Stevanovic (2018) argued that in psychology, the theories evaluated events as the underlying causes of dysfunctional behavior. Additionally, the models agreed that acquiring and maintaining deviant and adaptive behavior is primarily based on learning as operant theories state but to a lesser degree. They also propose that the social environment causes a vital impact on the learning process (DiGiovanna et al., 2008). However, cognitive, social learning differs from operant theories by postulating that most knowledge is a result of the individual cognitive processing of the stimulus. Veale (2008) and the colleagues Neziroglu and Khemlani-Patel (2008) brilliantly argued that the mediating processes could explain deviant behavior. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral theory adequately explains the causes of deviant behavior than classical conditioning and operant theory.
According to Thomas (2016), cognitive behavioral therapy is a fundamentally practical approach to solving a problem. This is basically to change its goals and patterns of thinking or behaviors that are a result of people’s difficulties leading to change in the ways they feel. Significantly individuals are taught this aspect of cognitive-behavioral change to help them distinguish healthy from unhealthy feelings to help them boost their distorted perception and understanding and therefore eliminate painful feelings (Abramowitz, 2013).
Much of the research in cognitive, social learning has been to establish a uniform theory generally acceptable to all by defining, examining, and combining different approaches (Durlak et al., 2011). Unfortunately, the cognitive-behavioral theory has been adopted differently in terms of level and scope among the various disciplines such as psychology, medicine, education, and biology. In school, the most recent cognitive-behavioral theory was first developed by a psychiatrist named Aaron Beck in 2013. He designed it after noticing that many patients had some form of internal dialogue. These inner thoughts affected their feelings, a situation he called “automatic thought.” The theory is based on the principle that a person`s cognition plays a critical part in the maintenance of a person`s emotional and behavioral response to situations in life. Cognition also promotes or serves as a hindrance to the process of adaptation (Beck, 2013). The theory is used in various cases to helping people understand themselves better. It is also popular among psychologists as the majority uses it to help patients experiencing mental health conditions.
For many years, people never considered social-emotional education as necessary as saying, mathematics, or linguistic learning. But over recent years, the inter-linkage between cognitive and emotional skills has been appreciated. In learning, the cognitive-behavioral theory is focused on the mental processes where a learner absorbs, interpret, store, and produce information (Romm et al. 2017). The procedures occur between input and output. The same way social and emotions present a vital role in the life of a patient, the same way it plays a crucial part in the educational success of the students. Weissberg et al. (2016), hypothetically claimed that emotions contribute significantly to determining the level of academic engagement of the student, commitment, work principle, and, finally, success in school. They also observed that since relationships and emotional processes affect learning, then all education stakeholders ought to take this aspect of learning seriously for the betterment of the learners.
Majorly the critical components of the cognitive-behavioral theory are the core beliefs and automatic thinking by an individual. Core beliefs are the most central beliefs of people to themselves and people that live around them. Individuals will begin to develop these beliefs from their childhood as they humiliate them to others (Foa & Jaycox, 1999). Considering this, they will develop good relationships with others in schools.
System Theory Approach
Katz. et al. (1978) first suggested the system theory approach in 1966, and this method shows the interaction between the external environment and the organization. It shows the cycles of input and output, along with the feedback between the organization and the external environment. The organization may receive data from the environment in terms of information or resources. The organization will then process the input received in a process known as throughput a then release the output into the atmosphere to maintain the equilibrium (Schaller. et al. 2010).
System theory has a congregation of origins, including mathematics, engineering, physics, and biology, it is founded on the principles and constructs which apply to human behavior in different disciplines. The theory was eagerly embraced in the 1970s by organizational researchers because sophisticated corporate practices could not be sufficiently explained by classical theories (Cook et al. 2016). In contrast to system theory, which emphasizes the maximization of interactions, traditional models were based on the premise of minimization of interactions. Sanchez et al. (2008) argued that the theory uses the machine metaphor to provide an alternative view to understanding organizations as organisms. In its initial stages, the approach was the foundation of theory development.
Its main objective is to develop unifying principles by various sciences and natural environment. Since it is bounded by time and space, influenced by its environment, it, therefore, revolves in between three main elements that are input, processing, and output. Therefore, clients receive data and process the data and later give it out away from the system. (Katz & Stotland, 1959). Systems may, at one point, require boundaries to ensure there is a limit to the system to enhance concentration in the activities in the system.
The system theory, therefore, views an organization as an open system that ought to interact with its environment. Byrne (2017) attested that there exists an interaction between organizations and their environment. Without this environment, an organization may not stand the test of time. An example of the relationship between the environment and the organizations includes suppliers who provide material to a company, stakeholders who undertake to invest, and employees who provide labor services to an organization. According to Cutlip et al. (2006), the critical role of public relations is to help institutions adapt to dynamics in an organization’s environment. System theory asserts that an organization that adapts to its environment is bound to be effective. Pfeffer and Salancik (1978), articulated that a situation is an event that occurs in the world, and it has an impact on the outcomes and functions of the organization.
Furthermore, the system theory of approach is usually determined by the tendency of organizations to behave like open social systems that allow for close and free interaction with the surrounding environments. Katz (1967) also heightened that the approach is usually critical for the survival of an organization because it needs to use the power and equipment’s in the environment to assist in delivering the goals and expected output. For instance, an organization requires the availability of customers to purchase manufactured profits to gain the organization its earnings. Similarly, suppliers are significant because they ensure that all the materials needed for the process of manufacturing are available at any point of need, without which any further operations and activities would seize. An organization also depends on its employees for the provision of labor activities and practical implementation of the proposed plans and projects. Finally, investors, shareholders, and government are vital partners that must be incorporated in the organizational practices to make policies, provide a monetary boost, and engage in decision makings that broadly affects the operations of the organization in negative or positive scope. Research done by Cutlip et al. (2006) stated that the benefits of public relations must not be underrated at all costs because they are, in fact, the major driving forces that help shape an organization to operate and adapt to the changes that occur in the environment.
To relate these concepts to the theory of social and emotional learning, it is imperative to note that SEL skills would be extensively useful, especially to aid the organization in making a positive relationship with the surrounding partners that have been stated in the above paragraph. For example, the five critical competencies of the SEL framework can be perfectly integrated into an organization set up to help it foster in creating a robust public relation with all of its environmental partners. Besides, the importance of using the SEL framework in an organization should be overemphasized because, from these definitions and fundamental principle of system theory approach, it can be concluded that the success of failure of an organization solely depends on how best it employs the usage of SEL and its associated components.
The two scenarios are comparable because, in the system theory of approach, there is a mutual relationship between the working system and the environments; thus, the method can sometimes be called an open-systems approach. The same interaction is evident in the social and emotional learning aspect since it also involves closer cooperation between the learners, educators, environment, and social life. However, the idea and knowledge of system approach theory should not be exhausted without understanding that there is also an existence of close systems organizations. In this case, the employees do not freely interact with the environmental factors and other teams of personnel. From its basic definition, social and emotional learning refers to the process by which learners gain knowledge and skills to help them in making decisions, that corresponded with the goals and aims set. A similar case is experienced in the open-system approach only, which involves the exchange of an organizational piece of information and resources to achieve the stated visions and goals.
Since system theory describes how the organization interacts with its environment, social and emotional learning be very much relevant to this theory. Christianson, (1992), revealed SEL teaches people not only about academic achievement but also how to communicate and relate to the environment one is subject to. A student who is socially and emotionally competent can effectively adapt to the context in which he or she lives, along with the place of work. For example, an employee in an organization ought to emotionally competent to deal with all the customers, supplies, and management. Thus, this study is therefore relevant as per this theory since it clamors to study social and emotional learning that equips students with relevant skills to enable them to relate with the environment effectively.
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow developed the theory in 1954. He wanted to understand what motivates people (students). A person (student) possesses a specific motivation that is not related to him or her receiving a reward after accomplishing a particular task (Maslow, 1954). He further postulated that there is always a motivation to fulfill specific needs (Maslow, 1987). When one requirement is satisfied, the person (student) moves on to meet the next demand, and the process continues. The hierarchy of needs comprises of five motivational needs which are placed in a hierarchical level in a pyramid. From the bottom of the pyramid to the top, it includes psychological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization (Cherry. 2013). These stages are divided into basic needs and growth needs. When basic needs are not met and the longer the duration that these needs remain unsatisfied, the stronger the motivation urge for students to fulfill those needs. It is believed that one must satisfy the essential requirement before moving up the hierarchy to meet the growing demand. Once all these needs are satisfied, one may reach the pinnacle of the hierarchy known as self-actualization.
Although the central aim of Maslow when formulating his theory was to help organizational administration to acquire the knowledge on the best ways of sustaining the needs of employees to improve their working morale, the same principle can be grafted to fit into the social and emotional learning framework. This is because people can always work best, develop better relationship abilities, and improve on their behavioral changes only if the learning techniques address their demands. In convention, Gawel (1996) noted that the hierarchical needs, namely: psychological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization, are all crucial considerations for SEL. For instance, learners need to access fresh air, water food, and shelter, or rather the basic requirements for their effective psychological functioning. The well-functioning cognitive system may help one to attain academic success after acquiring SEL skills and knowledge. It is also the role of cognitive cells to help one is making appropriate choices that are ethically evidence-based guided. Therefore, the social and emotional learning model may seem dysfunctional and fail to provide the widely anticipated benefits if the psychological needs of the learner are not addressed coherently.
Gawel (1996)also stated in his research that personal safety, as depicted by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, is useful in working environments while dealing with more critical tools and teammates. With SEL, learners should also adjust and appreciate its benefits in the employment environment. As earlier observed, SEL is useful in building positive relationships between individuals in the workplace. Other significant elements that Maslow considered part of the safety needs include but not limited to: personal security, resources, and an individual’s health. Consequently, social and emotional learning should aim at promoting all of these components to the learner to improve the confidence in the process of working towards the estimated goals.
Maslow’s (1987) article also stated that love and belonging was the third primary requirement by employees to make them feel like part of the team. The positive feeling while undertaking any activity could consequently lead to a positive outcome because the individual is motivated and self-driven to achieve the organizational goals. Similarly, social and emotional learning requires that learners be offered love and sense of belonging in the form of friendships, intimacies, family love and a range of connections to numerous resources that may aid them to complete the planned activities and to realize outcomes which conform to the stated goals and objectives. Verdasca et al. (2017) also concluded research and highlighted that SEL skills could only be productive to learners if the practices of this framework are offered on favorable grounds. For instance, one should feel loved, to avoid any misconceptions that their decision is irrelevant or useless in the communities.
Maslow’s fourth-ranked need was esteem. In this context, he noted that employees in the organization need to be shown respect and recognition by their organizations so that they may presume themselves as direct participants of the organization (p. 45). Maslow’s main idea in conveying this knowledge was to assist organizational administrators in installing things like performance appraisal systems so that employees could be appreciated for any additional task they engage in, in the process of achieving the organizational goals. The concept, which was first introduced in the year 1987, is still in practice by the current firms, who have achieved excellence by explicitly using such motivate and recognition system for employees. This knowledge can be applied directly to the social and emotional learning model, by the educators to ensure that the learners are appreciated on any supreme act they engage in. For instance, smoking is a widespread activity in the USA; thus, most youths and students have found it difficult to avoid it. Students who implement the use of SEL, to correctly refrain such activities should receive motivational awards or recognitions, to continuously encourage them.
Maslow’s (1987) hierarchy of needs ends in the stage of self-actualization, where the author stressed that organizations should perform activities that make their employees feel comfortable and have the urge to attain more at their levels. One of such events includes letting an employee engage specifically in the roles that they are best in. This will improve their urge to do it better and presentable because the implementation process is not only guided by the competency element but also mood and interest. This is one of the methods that kindergarten schools should employ while offering the SEL knowledge and skills to learners. Ideally, it will make the students concentrate more on whatever they are doing, thus cut off the excessive time, which they would otherwise spend in other miscellaneous and unproductive acts.
Every student can move from the basic needs level to the self-actualization level; however, the advancement is every so often delayed by the inability to satisfy needs at the lower level. Maslow (1987) observed that only one out of a hundred people could reach a level of self-actualization. In the early 1970s, the five-stage model was introduced, and rational and aesthetic needs and later perfection needs were added. Maslow decided that in place of concentrating on what goes wrong with the people, he decided to focus more on human potential and how people endeavor to fulfill that potential. He postulated that personal inspiration is founded on people (student) trying to seek fulfillment through personal growth. An individual (student) is always “becoming,” and he or she is never static (Rouse, 2004). In the self-actualization stage, a student reaches a level where he or she finds meaning in life. Kenrick et al. (2010), believed that, because of the unique nature of the people, self-actualization tends to lead people (learners) in a different direction. The highest level in the hierarchy of self-actualization can be attained via sports, in the classroom, as well as in the corporate environment.
The hierarchy of needs is crucial since it emphasizes the difference in the levels of needs, explaining which type of needs to be satisfied first. Higher hierarchy levels influence the future human behaviors as compared to lower levels since individuals who can fulfill social demands on the higher level of the hierarchy become irreplaceable in the minds. From the bottom upwards, the requirements are physiological, safety, love, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
Self-actualization should be taken as a progressive process and not a state of perfection where a person(student) reaches a point of perpetual happiness (Hoffman, 1988). By studying 18 people that Maslow considered to have already reached a self-actualization stage, he outlined 15 characteristics of a person considered as self-actualized (Maslow, 1987). However, the methodology used to generate these characters has been criticized by some researchers. McLeod (2007) maintained that Maslow used a qualitative method called biographical analysis. This is a process where he checks for biographies of people; he perceives to have reached the self- actualization level and then developed a list of qualities associated with this group of people, as opposed to all people. This process is deemed to be subjective because it is built on the judgment of the researcher, which tends to subject to partiality and therefore decreases the authenticity of the facts. Therefore, Maslow`s idea of self-actualization cannot be accepted scientifically as a fact (Hoffman, 1988).
Additionally, Trigg (2004) maintained that Maslow`s analysis was also based on a biased sample because he took a sample from highly educated white males. Even though in 1970, he further conducted a study on self-actualized females, they included an insignificant portion of his example. Thus, it is difficult to simplify his theory to those from lower economic and social class, females, and people from different ethnicity and, more importantly, to the students. Boulanouar et al. (2016) criticized Maslow’s assumption that lower needs ought to be attended to before one can achieve. This has been observed; such a process is not always followed, and thus Maslow`s hierarchy has been falsified.
Maslow (1987) proposed in his stages toward a potential self-actualization stage that to be able to achieve growth needs, one must equip him or herself with the right knowledge. This knowledge cannot be made through a learning process that only concentrates on the performance in terms of say, mathematics, and linguistic but rather through a holistic learning process that incorporates social and emotional learning. Through studying the perception of educators on social and emotional learning, the study will go a long way into adding and strengthening the hierarchy of needs theory.
Brain Research Theory
For years, there have been models that have been developed on how brains work. In the 1970s, researchers started to study parts of the brain (Ingber, 1981). This made the mind to be classified into three parts: the lower, middle, and upper sections. The lower brain was regarded as responsible for survival learning while the middle and high brain is in control for high-level thinking. Currently, brain theory emphasizes on the overall aspect of the entire mind (Kendziora & Yoder, 2016, September 30). This has led to scientists appreciating that the whole function of the brain is essential than parts of the brain summed together. Neuroscientists have conducted clinical studies to amass enough information on how our brain works.
Typically, the primary goal of offering a brain-based education system is usually to integrate the use of brain techniques and how it works in promoting the evaluation and interpretation of learning and teaching methods. The process that is often done by neuroscientists customarily involves the utilization of imaging techniques in the classrooms. Such modern techniques include the Functional MRI (fMRI) or Position Emission Tomography (PET) scans (Wolfe & Brandt, 1998). These tools allow the neuroscientists to assess and understand the thinking potential of the human. As it has been introduced, there has been excessive demand to understand the cognitive abilities of human because, because scientists have considered it as the significant factor which influences the decision-making process in the working environment. Gaining a solid understanding of the cognitive process can be helpful in the future to design, develop and make appropriate measures and strategies of solving the human brain challenges so that drawbacks involved in the SEL learning process get eliminated or reduced to their minimal levels. Sousa (1998, p. 35) stated that “no longer is teaching just an art form; it is a science.”
Caine and Caine (1994) asserted that there were twelve fundamental principles which have staunch implications in the education sector, especially in making brain science more practical for educational practices. Seven of these principles include:
- The brain is considered as an intricate adaptive system.
- Brain is social
- The brain can perform the search to obtain the meaning of inmates.
- The search for various meanings occurs via patterning.
- Emotion is a component of patterning
- The brain is responsible for processing distinctive sections and analyze them as a whole and
- Learning can be divided into focused and peripheral attention.
Meanwhile, Caine and Caine (1994) admitted that there some of the principles, especially the omitted ones, had a severe series of drawbacks that needed clarity and further clarification. First, the neuroscientists claimed that the policies had no factual reasoning and that the educational authors stated their findings based on speculations and assumptions. Secondly, most of these principles exceed the standards of the global statements of directly available information. This means that such laws are not useful in any of the current existing fields of brain-based science. Caine and Caine (1994) further exemplified that these highlighted problems were a significant hindrance to the practical experimentation of the cognitive functionalities. For this reason, this research is based on a theoretical approach using the ideas from articles and journals by both neuroscientists and education brain-based authors.
As students grow, they get to know changes as a result of social and cognitive components. Therefore, the brain-based system is where learners are taught how to manipulate the changes that result from social-emotional learning and cognitive learning. But entirely, it involves learning methods based on the recent scientific research on how the brain learns, including those for cognitive development and how the students learn as they age, grow, and mature socially, emotionally, and cognitively. In recent years, more researchers and scholars have made numerous attempts to understand the principle and working policy of the brain research theory. It is generally sufficient to summarize that brain research theory can be used in the social and emotional learning model to improve or hasten the rate of cognitive development. This process is vital because, all the subsequent activities and decisions that usually performed by the individuals after attaining the SEL skills are typically guided by their brain-thinking and abilities to reason and weigh down circumstances, by determining what is right and wrong, based on the future anticipated results of that presented choice.
The information from these studies is crucial in defining how human learning indeed takes place. The research currently seems to concentrate on the three main elements of human knowledge and the brain, that is, the brain`s ability to grow and adapt its sophistication cognitively, and integration. Jensen (2008) acknowledged that brain-based learning caters to the learning style of a specific student. He explained that brain learning is, in fact, the reality check. It was, therefore, crucial for educators to incorporate the findings from brain research to boost their teaching techniques. Amari (2003) further asserted that involving deep emotions like celebration or drama can increase the release of adrenaline that eventually improves learning memory. It was also observed that challenges, coherence, and time are essential in rewiring the brain
Since learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception, it also implies both conscious and unconscious processes. However, we have two different types of brain memory that facilitate the mastery of content in the classroom that is a spatial memory system and a system for inclusive learning. Teachers use various tips in improving the rate of understanding of students. They must use classroom spacing accordingly to arouse all students’ senses in class. Brain-based learning helps students to relax hence enhances alertness to students. Natural learning stimulates natural skills, improving the experience of an individual.
Brain-based learning helps individuals retain a proper understanding of concepts when they utilize their social and emotional skills taught in class. Similarly, brain-based knowledge is described as the paradigm of learning since it involves specific learning strategies that revolve around understanding, memory, students’ attention, the motivation of an individual, and the concept of knowledge acquisition of work. Additionally, whole brain teaching is also another form of education designed to improve the way of understanding to learners, maximization of the student’s engagement in the classroom. It focuses on how the brain is designed to work.
Ingber (1981) observed that the ability of the brain to adapt supports the notion that children have the chance to grow cognitively. Environmental happenings, which include experiences and the action one undertakes, may lead to a change of the brain. Since the adaptability of the brain has an impact on learning, it, therefore, becomes relevant to this study. (Cutlip, 2006) also undertook to dissect the effect of emotional states on education, emphasizing that although many have disregarded the issue of emotional state on learning, a neuroscientist has proven that emotions are an essential variable in the learning process of a student. Various research conducted by the neuroscientists has suggested that emotions aids in making meaning out of learning and help in planning our priorities (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). The brain gets over-stimulated whenever one experiences intense emotions, and thus, these emotional occurrences are given the preference by the brain to be processed (Christianson, 1992). Cahill et al. (1994) concluded that emotional events often lead to powerful memory imprint hence increasing our ability to recall things in a more precise way. It is also found that a high level of threat in the learning areas and stress over a while can destroy cognitive ability.
Jensen (2008) also discussed the impact of social experience on learning. Undoubtedly, social skills are regarded as one of the multiple intelligences. Social intelligence is described as the ability to process the intention of others correctly. Social events and cognitive events are processed in the same area of the brain. The essential social event happens in school or classrooms, and therefore student`s minds are shaped by those experiences (Hulleman et al., 2015).
Thus, from the brain research theory, it is evident that SEL is a critical aspect of part of learning that should be incorporated in our learning institution. It has been shown that social environment and emotions affect the brain, which consequently affects the learning process of the students. The brain research theory suggests that incorporating social and emotional learning in schools makes the student receives a holistic learning process that helps him or her adapt well to any given environment he or she comes across (Wigelsworth et al., 2019). Additionally, the theory helps in making calculated decisions when faced with hard experiences. Besides, the brain- research theory as a paradigm, usually address learning activities and learning outcomes in the conceptual view of the human brain. To achieve this, various strategies can be designed, which are selected based on parameters such as human attention, individual memory, motivational scenarios, and theoretical skill acquisition works. An effectively employed brain research theory can holistically optimize the learning ad teaching activities. This study is therefore timely as it aims to study the very idea that the brain research theory articulates. Thus, it will play a significant role in adding to the contribution already made by this theory as far as social and emotional learning for students is concerned.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1958) developed the theory, and it is indeed a theory of personality. According to this theory, the character comprises three elements, which include id, the ego, and the superego. All these are said to work together to inform specific human behavior. Fonagy et al. (2003) added that the id is a part of the personality that exists from birth. Furthermore, it is almost regarded as unconscious, and it comprises of all-natural and nascent behavior. Moreover, the author stated that specific adult behaviors are usually a result of the internal struggles or conflict between the three elements, which are always in a constant fight for dominance. Additionally, it is the cradle of psychic energy, and this describes it as a critical element of personality. McLeod, (2014) also noted that id is compelled by the need to gratify all the desires immediately, and if these desires are not met directly, then the state of anxiety and tension sets in. The id is very crucial in the early part of life because it ensures that the need for a child is met. For example, in case the child is hungry, he or she will cry until his or her demand is met. However, it is not always realistic to satisfy these needs as soon as they occur because if we are governed totally by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves snatching things from people’s hands to satisfy our cravings. This kind of behavior would be morally unacceptable. Freud (1958), therefore, argued that to solve the pressure formed by the pleasure principle, the id tries to do it through a primary process where it involves creating a mental image of the object that one needs as a way of satiating the need. According to Freud (1958), id is the most primitive structural part or component of the psychoanalytic theory. Its fundamental roles usually concern instant gratifications for the primary physical demands and urge. Interestingly, it often operates unconsciously (Fenichel & Rangell, 1995). This is one of the reasons that makes the theory so crucial because it allows scientists and researchers to perform an extensive investigation on the operation techniques of the id to suggest ways that may be used to transform the unconscious mind back into consciousness. A practical example is when one sees a car parked with its key inside, as the owner has branched for shopping or some other activity. The id will always make one take the car and drive away, and the feelings would be satisfactory because it will not think that the action is immoral or unethical in any manner.
Ego is an element meant to deal with reality. Freud (1958) postulated that ego is derived from id and ensures that instincts from the id may be articulated in a way that is okay in the real world. Therefore, it is governed by the reality principle because it endeavors to satisfy the desires from id in a realistic manner. The reality principle must consider the effect of an action before executing it (Rycroft, 1962). Mostly, the willingness from id can be solved through a method of delayed gratification, and the ego enables this in the right time and place (Fonagy, 2003). It also releases the tension by impulses that have not been met. To release the pressure, the ego search for an element in the ideal world that equals the mental image that is formed by the id. Although ego may also possess partial characteristics of being conscious and unconscious, it is generally less primitive and can help in making guided decisions on daily environmental issues. For this reason, Freud (1958) estimated that this unique behavior contributes to the significant role performed by ego, which is to create a balanced scoreboard for the id and superego. It helps the mind to make decisions that are partly moral and partly immoral. Perhaps, it is the reason as to why Freud considers it as a rational component of the psychoanalytic theory (Rennison, 2015).
Superego is the final element of personality. Frank, (1999) believed that it is the personality that is acquired from society and the parents and defines people’s logic of right and wrong, and it is this last component that provides the standard of making judgments. (Freud 1958) asserted that this personality starts to develop at the age of five. Kanzer (1972) illustrated that two facets of the superego do exist, which include the rules and standards of ethical behavior, which are approved by the parents and other authorities. Following these rules bring a sense of accomplishment. The other facet of the superego is conscience, which entails things that are regarded as evil by society and the family (Freud et al., 1954). Such kinds of behaviors are prohibited and often lead to a feeling of remorse and guilt. Therefore, it can be inferred that the superego is meant to refine our conduct. It acts to inhibit all the undesirable desires of the id and tries to make ego work within the sustainable principles. Thus, (Freud 1958) concluded that a suitable personality is achieved when there is a balance between the three elements.
Freud et al., (1954) demonstrated that for one to achieve a balanced personality, one must act within the confines of an acceptable standard in the society. To meet this standard, one must also be in full control of his or her emotions and able to relate with other people in any social setting. However, Freud (1958) firmly believed that one would be considered to have the best or a healthy personality suppose they had a much stronger rational ego, to balance off the moral and immoral substituents, Id and Superego. Accordingly, Freud concluded that it was so dangerous to have a state of imbalance after the prolonger internal struggles, because, one can easily suffer from anxiety and depression problems. Nevertheless, Freud (1958) stated that the superego would prove to be the best, but only if it is assumed that id was not present. This is because suppose the same person now with the superego sees the parked car, they will not take the car, because it would be revealed in their thoughts that taking the car is a lousy character and would make the owner sad or unhappy. Nonetheless, that state cannot exist because all three elements must be present, though in proportionate levels that vary from person to person, depending on their childhood developmental processes. For this reason, it is safe to comply with the Freud’s remarks, that a strong ego would yield the best outcome, despite the levels of id and ego. This, therefore, bring to the fore the significance of incorporating social and emotional learning in our educations system. This study is therefore meant to address the aspect of social and emotional learning in school with an emphasis on educator’s perception of the same issue.
Related Literature
O`Conner et al. (2017) Undertook to review the literature on social and emotional learning for students between the ages of three to eight. The review addressed four issues, which included elements of an efficient social and emotional program, implementation strategies and policies that support social and emotional learning programming, educator’s strategies that promote social and emotional learning, and finally, the outcome of social and emotional learning among the student (Doolittle., et al. 2017). The study concluded that support from school and community brings about active social and emotional learning. It was also noted that to achieve active social and emotional learning. The program ought to be well aligned across the grade and context. The review also found that SEL that is effective meets the precise need of the school or classroom. To ensure that social and emotional learning is undertaken effectively, the educator ought to be given the relevant training and technical assistance. The review also observed that most programs made use of skill-focused and environment-focused techniques.
Panayiotou et al. (2019), conducted a study on the empirical basis for linking social and emotional learning to academic performance. The study used an integrative model and used a sample of 1626 students from 45 schools in England. The sample was obtained through a randomized trial technique from school subjected to SEL intervention. By use of structural equation modeling, the relations between social-emotional competence, mental health difficulties, and the attainment academic was examined. The study found that social-emotional competence had a significant influence on social connectedness and mental health difficulties. Also, a student who had higher social-emotional capability was found to have fewer mental health difficulties, which further translated to higher educational achievement (Guerriero, 2017). Overall, the study concluded that contrary to the previous notion that social-emotional competence only promotes educational attainment, it was a significant buffer for the adverse effect of mental health difficulties
McCormick et al. (2015) studied social-emotional learning and academic achievement. The study used multilevel regression analyses and inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) to perform quantitative analysis to determine whether students` math and reading achievement improved by utilizing the INSIGHT program by first enhancing the classroom emotional support. The IPTW method showed that an improvement in the class organization led to an impact on reading achievement. The study also concluded that the school’s emotional support led to the effect of the INSIGHT program on math and reading achievement. However, the investigation remained silent on the perception of an educator on the SEL program, a gap that this study attempts to fill.
Durlak et al. (2011) examined the impact of enhancing students` social and emotional learning. The study used 213 universal SEL programs that involved 270,034 kindergartens and high school students. The study recorded an enhanced social and emotional skills and academic performance that represented eleven percentage improvements in achievement, and it was observed that educators from these schools successfully steered the social and emotional learning program.
Cristovao et al. (2017) conducted a study on social and emotional learning and educational achievement in Portuguese schools. It was meant to identify how the SEL program has impacted on the academic attainment in Portugal. It was concluded that SEL programs in Portugal and their relation to academic success are quite dispersed. The study, therefore, emphasized the need for intense training about SEL and the need to prepare and train educators on the issue.
Bradshaw et al. (2008) reported on collaborative for social, emotional learning (CASEL). They accurately suggested that CASEL is one of the leading organizations whose aim is primarily to integrate academic goals, social life, and emotions to form a reliable and beneficial learning technique for children. The author reiterated his findings by outlining five critical competencies of building blocks of SEL, that promotes its efficiency and effectiveness in one way or the other. They include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness programs, responsible decision-making activities, and positive relationship skills. In his findings, Bradshaw et al. (2018) suggested that self-awareness refers to a situation where the learner can explicitly understand his/her emotions and thoughts concerning their effects on the behavioral changes. The concept coincides with the Cristovao et al. (2017) findings that one’s ability of self-awareness is a great tool to shape an individual’s behavior and overall integrity at social or personal levels.
Secondly, Bradshaw et al. (2018) defined self-management as an act or tendency of an individual to manage the challenges and drawbacks that take place in everyday life, by conforming to the expected goals to ensure that they are achieved in whatever the circumstances. On most occasions, self-management can incorporate various principles such as executive functions and self-discipline. The third core competency discussed was the responsive decision-making process. Like other author’s reports, the Bradshaw et al., (2018) article found that one decision-making skills gained from SEL may be useful to assist one in making decisions between varied choices that are characterized by either positive or negative outcomes. For one to excel in this SEL idea, Bradshaw et al. (2018) noted that a learner must be able to identify problems, analyze different situations, solve emerging challenges, and reflect on the chosen options to evaluate their effectiveness. Bradshaw et al. (2018) finalized his report by explaining the last two SEL core competencies, social awareness, and relationship skills.
Ashdown & Bernard (2012) also estimated in their research findings that using SEL in schools was a vital adjustment should be accepted and practiced by all public and elementary schools, to ensure that there are equality and standardization in the levels of qualifications among students from various schools regardless of their locations. Ashdown and Bernard also asserted that the majority of the students who are usually subjected to the SEL skills in their entire learning process often develop impressive and outstanding life benefits that are practically and realistically visible or measurable. It is almost improbable to ignore the point that SEL skills enable a learner an opportunity to obtain learning skills and set appropriate goals that aim at improving or addressing particular a specific social and personal life problem (p. 454). In convention, the authors stated that most of the children who go through the SEL learning programs avoid practices such as smoke, because an individual is capable of using the conceptual social and emotional learning skills to make decisions, based on the impacts that particular choice can potentially lead to (Zins &Elias, 2007). This further denotes that SEL students can easily avoid acts of smoking and engagement in other criminal cases.
However, before Ashdown and Bernard’s (2012) research, Jones et al. (2015) earlier made similar observations when the authors experimented on determining whether there was any clear relationship existing between early social and emotional learning in the kindergarten schools and their future lives. Accordingly, Zins (2004) that most successful people in the field of academics attended kindergarten schools. In contrast, most smokers are people who rarely participated in these schools, and also had parents who gave less attention and care to their education. These manifestations help gauge the relevant conclusion by weighing on the definite advantages of SEL, in order of their priority.
Summary
From the reviewed literature, both theoretical and the empirical, it can be inferred that the aspect of social and emotional learning has been given considerable attention in terms of research. Because of the realization that people must incorporate social and psychological elements in their knowledge to attain holistic academic attainment, the implementation of the program is essential. For contemporary education to prepare the student to face the issue of life with appropriate skills, it has to go beyond the ancient ways of training and embrace the modern methods of learning, which incorporate this new learning aspect into the learning system. This will play an essential role in the life of the students because it will enable the student to adapt well to the different environment once they are through with their education. How a student is equipped emotionally and socially will play a significant part in ensuring whether the student succeeds in his or her career. In modern times, many jobs involve handling and dealing with people, and if the student is emotionally and socially prepared right from school, he will be bound to succeed.
From the previous studies conducted, it is apparent that social and emotional learning enhances and promotes academic attainment. Therefore, the psychological and social aspect of the student has a significant role in determining whether the student achieve his or her educational goals. From all the empirical literature reviewed, they all concluded that social and emotional organization has a positive impact on educational performance. Still, the degree in which SEL affected differed for each study conducted. From the literature review, we can confidently say that the social and emotional aspect of learning forms a crucial ingredient that is needed by all students to succeed in academics, as well as in life after school.
Besides, although most of the studies attempted to prove the significance of social and emotional skills in alignment with the educational excellence of students, some of the empirical results indicated that SEL skills and knowledge could also assist students in adapting to positive behaviors. Positive behaviors do not only suggest that a student relates well with the students, teachers and other people in the school environment, but would also help in shaping responsible people in the society who have fewer vices and more virtues. Additional research findings also indicated that social and emotional learning and teaching skills are useful in managing behaviors and having fewer cases of psychological stress (Zins &Elias, 2006). The research just did an investigation concerning the Freud’s psychoanalytic theory elements, and the final suggestions indicated that having a strong ego, after acquiring the SEL knowledge and skills helps manage the effects of anxiety and depression brought about as a result of imbalances in or more influential superego and id elements.
While many studies have concentrated on studying the impact of social and emotional learning on educational achievement, very few studies have focused on studying the educator’s perception of this form of education. As far as this learning is concerned, educators play a pivotal role in ensuring its success as they are equipped to deliver this knowledge to the student. If educators fail to understand the importance of this learning process, then its impact, even if introduced, is bound to be minimal. It is imperative to assess the preparedness of educators and learners to ensure that this program has a high probability of succeeding. An educator ought to be well trained and prepared and taken through programs that will aid them in appreciating the importance of this form of learning.
In this study, therefore, we endeavor to fill the gap that has existed by researching the educator’s perception of social and emotional learning. The findings from this study will aid in adding to the body of knowledge in the education sector by outlining how the educator views on this learning process, their contribution to how these programs can be improved their assessment regarding the impact of learning to the students. The study will also serve as a basis of research for those who would wish to undertake further studies in the field of education, especially concerning the new learning program.
REFERENCES
Abramowitz, J. S. (2013). The practice of exposure therapy: relevance of cognitive-behavioral theory and extinction theory. Behavior therapy, 44(4), 548-558.
Adu, P. (2019). A Step-by-Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding. New York, NY: Routledge
Amankwaa, L. (2016). Creating protocols for trustworthiness in qualitative research. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 23(3), 121-127.
Amari, S. (2003). The handbook of brain theory and neural networks. MIT press.
Archibald, T., Sharrock, G., Buckley, J., & Cook, N. (2016). Assumptions, conjectures, and other miracles: The application of evaluative thinking to the theory of change models in community development. Evaluation and Program Planning, 59, 119–127. DOI: 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.05.015
Ashdown, D. M., & Bernard, M. E. (2012). Can explicit instruction in social and emotional learning skills benefit the social-emotional development, well-being, and academic achievement of young children? Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(6), 397-405.
Beaty, J. (2018). History of social and emotional learning. International Arab Journal of English for Specific Purposes 1(1), 67-72. https://revues.imist.ma/index.php?journal=IAJESP&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D=14402&path%5B%5D=7902
Beck, A. T. (2013). Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies. Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change, 6, 393-442.
Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27.
Bradshaw, C. P., O’Brennan, L. M., & McNeely, C. A. (2008). Core competencies and the prevention of school failure and early school leaving. New directions for child and adolescent development, 2008(122), 19-32.
Byrne, D. (2017). Project Planner. Retrieved February 29, 2020, from https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781526408570
Cahill, L., Prins, B., Weber, M., &McGaugh, J.L. (1994). Adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature, 371(6499), 702-704.
Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1994). Understanding a brain-based approach to learning and teaching. Educational leadership, 48(2), 66-70.
CASEL. (2019). Core SEL Competencies. Retrieved from https://casel.org/core-competencies/
Cherry, K. (2013). The five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. How Maslow’s Famous Hierarchy Explains Huma Motivation.
Christianson, S. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: a critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 284. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1993-04374-001
Collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (CASEL). (2019). What is SEL? Retrieved February 24, 2020, from https://casel.org/what-is-sel/
Cooper, P., and Cefai, C., 2009. Introducing emotional education. The International Journal of Emotional Education, 1, no. 1: 1-7.
Cope, D. G. (2014). Methods and meanings: Credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research. Oncology Nursing Forum, 41(1), 89-91.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cristovao, A. M., Candeias, A. A., &Verdasca, J. (2017). Social and emotional learning and academic achievement in Portuguese schools: A bibliometric study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1-12. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01913
Cutlip, Center, Broom. (2006). Effective Public Relations. Jakarta: Kencana.
Davis, S. H. (2007, April). Bridging the gap between research and practice: What’s good, what’s wrong, and how can one be sure? Phi Delta Kappan, 88(8), 569–578.
Devaney, E., O’Brien, M. U., Resnik, H., Keister, S., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Sustainable Schoolwide Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): Implementation Guide and Toolkit. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (NJ3).
DiGiovanna, J., Mahmoudi, B., Fortes, J., Principe, J. C., & Sanchez, J. C. (2008). Coadaptive brain-machine interfaces via reinforcement learning. IEEE transactions on biomedical engineering, 56(1),54-64. http://www.dcsc.tudelft.nl/~sc4081/2018/assign/pap/lucian_rlbmi_paper.pdf
Djurdjevic, D., & Stevanovic, M. (2018, May 26). Education for a sustainable national economic system as a vital interest. Retrieved February 26, 2020, from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/56870419/Book_of_Proceedings_esdBelgrade2018_Online.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline; filename=INVESTIGATING_THE_ROLE_OF_E-SERVICE_QUAL.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A/20200227/us-east-1/s3/aws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20200227T164855Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=a501fa270953393c75c2a86bef2382e91ba252b2708ea9808111e37a99b15fe1#page=69
Durlak, J. A. (2016). Programme implementation in social and emotional learning: fundamental issues and research findings. Cambridge Journal of Education, 46(3), 333-345.
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R.P., Dymnicki, A.B., Taylor, R.D., & Schellinger, K.B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405-432. http://www.episcenter.psu.edu/sites/default/files/news/Durlak%20et%20al.%20(2011)%20meta%20analysis%20SEL.pdf
Dusenbury, L., & Weissberg, R. (2019, July 26). Social, emotional learning in elementary school. Retrieved February 27, 2020, from https://www.rwjf.org
Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., Kessler, R., SchwabStone, M. E., and Shriver, T. P. 1997. Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Esen-Aygun, H., & Sahin-Taskin, C. (2017). Educators’ views on social-emotional skills and their perspectives on social-emotional learning programs. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(7), 205-215.
Fenichel, O., & Rangell, L. (1995). The psychoanalytic theory of neurosis. WW Norton & Company.
Foa, E. B., & Jaycox, L. H. (1999). Cognitive-behavioral theory and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder.
Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (2003). Psychoanalytic theories: Perspectives from developmental psychopathology. Whurr publishers.
Frank, G. (1999). Freud’s concept of the superego: Review and assessment. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 16(3), 448.
Franklin, C., Ballan, M., & Thyer, B. (2001). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. The handbook of social work research methods, 2, 273-292.
Freud, M. (1958). Sigmund Freud: Man and father.
Freud, S., & Bonaparte, P. M. (1954). The origins of psychoanalysis (Vol. 216). London: Imago.
Gawel, J. E. (1996). Herzberg’s theory of motivation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 5(1), 11.
Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British dental journal, 204(6), 291-295.
Guerriero, S. (2017). Educators’ knowledge and the teaching profession. Pedagogical Knowledge and the Changing Nature of the Teaching Profession Educational Research and Innovation. DOI: 10.1787/g250b5d90a-en
Haley, K., & Allsopp, D. (2018). Advocating for students with learning and behavior challenges: Insights from educators who are also parents. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63(1), 24–31. DOI: 10.1080/1045988x.2018.1469462
History (2019). CASEL. Retrieved from https://casel.org/history/ “Information Community.” About Clayton County | Clayton County, GA, Clayton County Georgia, 2019, www.claytoncountyga.gov/residents/about-clayton-county.
Hoffman, E. (1988). The right to be human: A biography of Abraham Manslo. Los Angeles, CA. JP Tarcher. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b482/bcc25c817f3b807c62cdb86ffc5b82766aca.pdf
Hupp, S. D., Reitman, D., & Jewell, J. D. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral theory. Handbook of clinical psychology, 2, 263-287.
Husserl, E. (1965). Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
IGI Global. (2020). What is educator perceptions? Retrieved February 24, 2020, from https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/the-perspectives-of-iranian-efl-educators-on-the-integration-of-ict-into-their-teaching-practices/49271
Ingber, L. (1981). Towards a unified brain theory. Journal of Social and Biological Systems, 4(3), 211–224. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-1750(81)80037-1Jensen, E. (2008). Brain-based learning. Corwin Press. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ868336.pdf
Jones, D. E., Greenberg, M., & Crowley, M. (2015). Early social-emotional functioning and public health: The relationship between kindergarten social competence and future wellness. American journal of public health, 105(11), 2283-2290.
Jones, S. M., & Doolittle, E. J. (2017). Social and emotional learning: Introducing the issue. The Future of Children, 27(1), 3–11. DOI: 10.1353/foc.2017.0000
Kanzer, M. (1972). Superego aspects of free association and the fundamental rule. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 20(2), 246-266.
Katz, A. (1967). Principles of statistical mechanics: the information theory approach. WH Freeman.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (Vol. 2, p. 528). New York: Wiley. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/85f7/dadae6fc51905bd314871b7458cf0f5bade1.pdf
Katz, D., & Stotland, E. (1959). A preliminary statement to a theory of attitude structure and change. Psychology: A study of science, 3(423-475).
Kendziora, K., & Yoder, N. (2016, September 30). When districts support and integrate social and emotional learning (SEL): Findings from an ongoing evaluation of the districtwide implementation of SEL. Retrieved February 27, 2020, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED571840
Kenrick, D.T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S.L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extension built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on psychological science, 5(3), 292-314. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161123/?utm_content=bufferaf3a4&utm_source=buffer&utm_medium=twitter&utm_campaign=Buffer
Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The Assessment of trustworthiness. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 45(3), 214-222.
Krosnick, J. A. (2018). Questionnaire design. In The Palgrave handbook of survey research (pp. 439-455). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Low, S., Smolkowski, K., & Cook, C. (2016). What constitutes high-quality implementation of SEL programs? A latent class analysis of Second Step® implementation. Prevention Science, 17(8), 981-991.
Martinsone, B., &Vilcina, S. (2017). Educators’ perceptions of sustainability of the social-emotional learning program in Latvia: A focus group study. Journal of Educator Education for Sustainability, 19(2), 5-20.doi: 10.1515/jtes-2017-0011
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harpers.
Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14, 987. http://www.researchhistory.org/2012/06/16/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/
McCormick, M.P., Cappella, E., O`Connor, E.E., & McClowry, S.G. (2015). Social-emotional learning and academic achievement: using causal methods to explore classroom-level mechanisms. AERA Open, 1(3). https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2332858415603959
McLeod, S. (2007). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Only psychology, 1, 1-8.
McLeod, S. (2014). Theories of personality. Retrieved on January 15, 2017.
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2020). Competencies. Retrieved February 24, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competencies
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2020). Education. Retrieved March 28, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competencies
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2020). Implementation. Retrieved March 29, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competencies
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2020). Sustainability. Retrieved March 29, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/competencies
Milligan, F. (1998). Defining and assessing competence: the distraction of outcomes and the importance of the educational process. Nurse education today, 18(4), 273-280.
Moustakas, C. E. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Namath, A., & Shuler, P. (1990). Focus group interview: a research technique for informed nursing practice. Journal of advanced nursing, 15(11), 1281-1288.
Newman, J., & Dusenbury, L. (2015). Social and emotional learning (SEL): A framework for Academic, Social, and Emotional Success. Prevention Science in School Settings, 287–306. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3155-2_14
Neziroglu, F., Khemlani-Patel, S., & Veale, D. (2008). Social learning theory and cognitive-behavioral models of body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 5(1), 28-38.
O`Conner, R., De Feyter, J., Carr, A., Luo, J.L., & Romm, H. (2017). A Review of the Literature on Social and Emotional Learning for Students Ages3-8: Characteristics of Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs (part1 of 4). Regional Education Laboratory, Mid-Atlantic. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2a65/fac012e20131278f8584afcf82e09da287ce.pdf
Oberle, E., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2017). Social and emotional learning: Recent research and practical strategies for promoting children’s social and emotional competence in schools. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series Handbook of Social Behavior and Skills in Children, 175–197. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-64592-6_11
Oberle, E., Domitrovich, C. E., Meyers, D. C., & Weissberg, R. P. (2016). Establishing systemic social and emotional learning approaches in schools: a framework for schoolwide implementation. Cambridge Journal of Education, 46(3), 277–297. DOI: 10.1080/0305764x.2015.1125450
Opdenakker, R. (2006, September). Advantages and disadvantages of four interview techniques in qualitative research. In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative social research (Vol. 7, No. 4).
Oppenheim, A. N. (2000). Questionnaire design, interviewing, and attitude measurement. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Panayiotou, M., Humphrey, N., & Wigelsworth, M. (2019). An empirical basis for linking social and emotional learning to academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 56, 193–204. DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.01.009
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pfeffer, J.& Salancik. (1978). The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective.
Public School Review. (2020). Northcutt elementary school profile (2020): Atlanta, GA. Retrieved February 2, 2020, from https://www.publicschoolreview.com/northcutt-elementary-school-profile
Rashid, Y., Rashid, A., Warraich, M. A., Sabir, S. S., & Waseem, A. (2019). Case study method: a step-by-step guide for business researchers. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, 160940691986242. DOI: 10.1177/1609406919862424
Rennison, N. (2015). Freud And Psychoanalysis: Everything You Need To Know About Id, Ego, Super-Ego, and More. Oldcastle Books.
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., &Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Social and emotional learning in elementary school settings: Identifying mechanisms that matter. The Handbook of Social and Emotional Learning, 151-166.
Rouse, K. A., G. (2004). Beyond Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what do people strive for? Performance Improvement, 43(10), 27-31.
Rycroft, C. (1962). Beyond the reality principle. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 43, 388-394.
Sanjari, M., Bahramnezhad, F., Fomani, F. K., Shoghi, M., & Cheraghi, M. A. (2014, August 4). Ethical challenges of researchers in qualitative studies: the necessity to develop a specific guideline. Retrieved February 27, 2020, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4263394/
Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2017). Social and emotional learning and educators. The Future of Children, 27(1), 137–155. DOI: 10.1353/foc.2017.0007
Snider, J. (2010, February 10). Commentary. The cult of statistical pyrotechnics. Education Week, 29(21), 20–21.
StatTrek. (2020). Sampling Methods. Retrieved March 1, 2020, from https://stattrek.com/survey-research/sampling-methods.aspx
Steup, M., & Neta, R. (2020, January 15). Epistemology. Retrieved February 24, 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/
Sturges, J. E., & Hanrahan, K. J. (2004). Comparing telephone and face-to-face qualitative interviewing: a research note. Qualitative research, 4(1), 107-118.
Subramani, C., & Kadhiravan, S. (2017). Academic stress and mental health among high school students. Indian Journal of Applied Research 7, 404-6. http://ijaret.com/wp-content/themes/felicity/issues/vol4issue1/snehalata.pdf
Thomas, D. R. (2016). Feedback from research participants: are member checks useful in qualitative research? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 14(1), 23–41. DOI: 10.1080/14780887.2016.1219435
Trigg, A. B. (2004). Deriving the Engel curve: Pierre Bourdieu and the social critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Review of Social Economy, 62(3), 393-406.
Tuffour, I. (2017). A Critical Overview of Interpretative Case study Analysis: A Contemporary Qualitative Research Approach. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 02(04). DOI: 10.4172/2472-1654.100093
Wittmayer, J. M., & Schäpke, N. (2014). Action, research, and participation: roles of researchers in sustainability transitions. Sustainability Science, 9(4), 483-496.
Wolfe, P., & Brandt, R. (1998). What Do We Know from Brain Research?. Educational Leadership, 56(3), 8-13.
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: design and methods (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Zins, J. E. (Ed.). (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say?. Teachers College Press.
Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2006). Social and emotional learning. Children’s needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention, 1-13.
Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2007). Social and emotional learning: Promoting the development of all students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 17(2-3), 233-255.