Social Inequalities, Social Gradient and Health Outcomes in Australia
Social status is an essential factor in predicting health outcomes in all societies. One of the consistent results of health research is the relationship between social status and health. There are differences in health outcomes between groups in society at all stages of their lives. Many studies address the effects of income inequalities on the health of the population since income inequality among social disparities. Although the objectives are contradictory and mainly suggest the negative effects of the income gap on health, researchers recognized the weight of the income imbalance for differences in health outcomes.
There is a neo-material view that an inconsistent distribution of income leads to inadequate investments in human, social or physical capital, educational settings and clinical administrations. Privileged groups among the general public can use privately supervised administrations and therefore, not taking care of improving the public healthcare service. If the provisions of the public service are of poor quality, families act independently by providing resources and placing them in private options, which makes it even more challenging to finance public administrations. Groups in the lower socioeconomic position are increasingly influenced, as they are subject to public administrations such as public hospitals. Higher-income inequality would lead to a widening gap in health between those on low incomes and those who depend on private healthcare facilities.
Low social status is associated with higher rates of morbidity and mortality and more dangerous health behaviours, such as poor nutrition and smoking. People belonging to weak social groups are in the worst state of health; however, the social gradient changes with changing social status, which indicates that these people’s social conditions affect their health. A high level of social equality is essential for the well-being of all. Rich countries that maintain social equality have more involvement and trust in the community and a higher educational level than rich countries that do not support social equality. Social inequality threatens a country’s economic and social development. Everyday social inequalities lead to different health outcomes in Australia, given the social divide. This includes the social gap between non-indigenous and indigenous Australians, refugees and other Australians and, finally, between disabled and needy people.
In the health sector, a social gradient expresses a situation in which disadvantaged socioeconomic people have worse health conditions and even shorter lives than the most favoured (Hämmig and Bauer, 2013). There is no equitable distribution of healthcare among the Australian population. The state of health follows a gradient with an increase in socioeconomic status, which results in an improvement in medical treatments. According to Hämmig and Bauer (2013), social inequality means unequal opportunities and benefits between different members of society. There are five different types of social inequality. In political inequality, there are differences because some people have access to government resources. Under unequal conditions of responsibility and treatment, some people enjoy more privileges than others. The inequality of members results from the variable number of a creed, state or family. Inequality in life results from differences in opportunities that can improve a person’s quality of life. Differences in wealth and income are the result of differences in individual income that contribute to your daily, monthly or annual income. According to Barr & Dowding (2019), Karl Marx proposed the conflict theory according to which society is in a situation of infinite conflict. Result of competition for limited resources. Theoretically, the quality of health care and health is linked to social inequalities. People with low social backgrounds are more likely to receive inadequate medical care.
In Australia, the unequal distribution of resources, money and power has led to different health outcomes. Australians are socially handicapped by their place of residence, by their education; Income, employment status and Indigenous people, in Australia are at high risk for chronic diseases. Various health indicators have shown that inequalities exist in Australia. These indicators include health and life expectancy, morbidity and mortality, behaviours and attitudes, knowledge of health and use of health services (Whelan and Wright, 2013). Non-Aboriginal Australians have a longer life expectancy than Aboriginal Australians. Refugees in Australia are in poor health compared to other Australian citizens. People with disabilities also have health problems compared to those who have no restrictions.
Compared to non-Australian indigenous populations, Australian indigenous populations have limited access to health care. Conflict theory explains this difference in access to health services. Indigenous peoples in Australia are associated with low education, poor housing and sanitation, unemployment and economic and social exclusion.
According to Whelan and Wright (2013), about 57% of non-aboriginal Australians are employed, compared to 40% of aboriginal Australians. In 2015, 62% of Aboriginal students completed their twelfth year or the equivalent with 86% of non-Aboriginal students. In 2014, the rate of community and family violence among indigenous Australians was 22%, more than double the number of reported cases for non-indigenous people. In 2016, the rate of detention of young Aborigines was 26 times higher than that of non-Aboriginal youth. The high rate of violence in the Torres Strait and the aborigines is due to factors such as child abuse, mental health problems and illegal use of drugs and alcohol. Compared to non-Australian Aborigines, Aboriginal Australians are more likely to suffer from chronic kidney disease, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, mental health problems and respiratory diseases. There are other health problems associated with this population that is not fully understood. Some of these notable conditions include rheumatic heart disease and trachoma, a bacterial eye infection. Between 2014 and 2016, compared to non-indigenous Australians, Australian indigenous children aged 0 to 4 died more than twice.
According to Selvanathan, Selvanathan and Jayasinghe (2020), in 2016, malnourished indigenous children were 1.7 times larger than non-indigenous children. During the 2014-2015 periods, the rate of hospitalization for chronic non-cancerous diseases among Australian Indians was higher than that of non-indigenous people. Aborigines in Australia have a higher rate of mental illness and suicide than non-aboriginal Australians. Refugees in Australia also suffer from social inequalities like indigenous Australians.
Compared to a significant number of other Australians in the country, refugees have limited access to the resources needed for medical and health care in Australia, including housing, income and employment. Studies in Australia and abroad show that refugee in the countries where they resolve due to human rights violations, war, conflicts and significant lack in their home country, refuge and street have health problems in the new nation. (Fujibayashi,2017). According to the UN ranking, the new arrivals of refugees come from countries with the lowest life expectancy and human development in the world. There is a high rate of developmental problems in children, post-traumatic stress disorder, chronic illnesses, anxiety, nutritional deficits and oral health problems among Australian refugees. It is hard to quantify the health disadvantage of refugees in commonly used health care settings, as most of the data collected are indistinguishable from people born and migrants in Australia (Fujibayashi, 2017).
Regarding the universal population, which can be 14% for good health and 5% for poor health, refugees obtained 19% and 13%, respectively (Parker, Guo and Sanders, 2019). They are also more likely to report an exceptional level of psychological stress. The refugee population faces several barriers to accessing health services and has a low rate of participation in disease prevention programs.
According to Parker, Guo and Sanders (2019), compared to the indigenous peoples of Australia, a small number of refugees have the opportunity to study or work. Unlike indigenous Australians, the exact number of refugees in the country may not be available. As a result, the resources allocated by the government may not be adequate to meet their needs. Like indigenous Australians, they suffer from health problems such as chronic and mental illnesses and some commit crimes due to poor living conditions and violence, even when young. Due to their socioeconomic status, they are unable to receive proper health care as the rest of the Australians.
When measured by various health indicators, people with disabilities have less access to health services and unfavourable health conditions than many other people living in the country. Tapper and Fenna (2018) argue that in Australia, people with disabilities have lower incomes and are more likely to live in poverty than people without disabilities. The relative income they earn is even worse than in the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, through various indicators. Certain forms of disability are associated with high morbidity and low life expectancy. People with disabilities are likely to have a poor self-assessment compared to the general population, which may be 11% and 5%, respectively, and less likely to report excellent self-care rates, that is according to Whelan and Wright (2013). People with disabilities also have limited access to economic and social resources, essential to their health and with a high level of isolation. They also experience low average income, low participation rates, violence and unemployment. 53% of people with disabilities are part of the workforce compared to 81% of the general population (Whelan and Wright, 2013). Disabled people face barriers to accessing health services and rarely participate in disease prevention programs. The relationship between disability and health is complicated and influenced by the complications of disability, the impact of functional limitations associated with disability and the economic and social conditions experienced by people with disabilities (Wilkins, 2015). As with Australian indigenous people and refugees, the majority of people with disabilities are low educated, unemployed and living in poverty. They are also socially isolated from a large number of people living in the country. The difference between people with disabilities and Australian and Aboriginal refugees is that people with disabilities rarely engage in criminal activities, as is the case with some Aboriginal and Australian refugees. Thus, social inequality between disabled Australians and other Australians, such as social inequality between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians, refugees and the rest of Australia, produces differences in health outcomes in Australia.
The unequal distribution of resources, money and control in Australia has led to different health outcomes. Compared to non-Australian indigenous populations, Australian indigenous populations have limited access to health care. They are associated with lack of education, poor housing and poor health services, unemployment and economic and social exclusion. They are also associated with chronic illness, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and mental health problems. Compared to other Australians, refugees in Australia have limited access to the resources needed for welfare and medical care. They have a high rate of developmental problems in children, chronic illnesses, post-traumatic stress disorder, nutritional deficits and oral health problems. Many people with disabilities are less educated, and their employment rate is lower than that of Australians without disabilities. They have limited access to health services compared to Australians with no disabilities. These social inequalities lead to differences in health outcomes in Australia. Social differences between Australian aborigines, refugees and Australian people with disabilities are linked to their poor health and, therefore, social inequalities will have different health outcomes.
References
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