Sports, Politics and Society
Section a:
Association football is predicted to trace its origin to China during the period of the Han Dynasty in the 200s C.E. when Chinese conducted football games called “cuju” or “kickball” which highly resembles modern soccer Szymanski, Stefan. “A theory of the evolution of the modern sport.” Journal of Sport History
(2008): 1-32.
. After its origin in China, similar soccer games began in Asia, Australia, the Malay Peninsula, the Pacific Islands, and Japan. In the old centuries, however, Europe had no significant ball games while football in America sprouted after civilization. Between the 1400s and 1600s in Europe, football evolved from different ball games, which was banned by the English rulers because it was perceived to be a game for poor people that incited violence and sin.
The first Association Football Cup was conducted in England in 1871 however for several years; football games were held without game rules and were played solely by lower class people. Its domination in schools prompted the formulation of a set of rules for football. Hence, in 1863 different schools in England developed an agreeable set of rules, which led to the creation of Football Association (FA) consisting of eleven schools and the beginning of the evolution of modern football Goldblatt, David. The ball is round: a global history of football- Penguin UK, 2007.
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Although soccer began as a game primarily in the lower class society, its official presence was solely recognized when it emerged in the upper classes. In the latter years of the 1800s, industrial towns in England began formulating their Football Associations, for instance, the 1873 Scottish Football Association and 1878 Lancashire Football Association. Other teams that exist to date include Aston Villa formed in 1874, Bolton Wanderers developed in 1874, Wolverhampton Wanderers founded inn1877 and Everton founded in 1878 Van Bottenburg, Maarten, and Beverley Jackson. Global games. Vol. 124. University of Illinois
Press, 2001.
. Association football, therefore, consisted of 12 clubs Derby County, Stoke City, Accrington, Aston Villa, Wolverhampton Wanderers, Notts County, Bolton Wanderers, Blackburn Rovers, Burnley, Preston North End, West Bromwich Albion, and Everton. Only Accrington currently no longer exists having only predominated until 1983 Tomlinson, Alan, Andrei S. Markovits, and Christopher Young. “Introduction: Mapping sports
space.” American Behavioral Scientist 46.11 (2003): 1463-1475.
. The first official meeting to formulate an agreed upon Laws of Soccer was conducted in 1886 between the Football Associations of Wales, Scotland, England and Ireland. In 1888, England football performed its first league which consisted of all 12 clubs.
Football in Spain was introduced by British immigrants who worked on rails and mines and for 20 years in the 19th century, the game gradually evolved from the British society to the native Spaniards aided by 1902, which was a tournament conducted between the Basque region teams Madrid and Catalonia Markovits, Andrei S., and Lars Rensmann. Gaming the world: how sports are reshaping global
politics and culture. Princeton University Press, 2010.
. Before spreading to the capital, the effect of Spanish football was felt on the coasts especially in Barcelona and Bilbao whereby Athletic Bilbao won four Cups of the King’s in the first ten years.
Spanish football, however, faced several challenges when developing its state identity rather than regional ones. Despite Spain being one of the FIFA founding members in 1904, the country did not form an association football until 1913 and did not build a national team until the end of World War I in 1939 Markovits, Andrei S., and Adam I. Green. “FIFA, the video game: a major vehicle for soccer’s
popularization in the United States.” Sport in Society 20.5-6 (2017): 716-734.
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Football in Germany took almost three decades to gain significance after its development in other countries such as Spain and France. However, its growth exploded within only ten years. The first renowned football games conducted in Germany were in 1874 however the Game Laws were translated into Germany in 1891 whereby German football clubs were formed. In the period between 1891 and 1900, approximately, 200 clubs were developed with more than 10,000 prominent football players Szymanski, Stefan. “A theory of the evolution of the modern sport.” Journal of Sport History
(2008): 1-32.
. Germany’s first state championship was conducted in 1903 whereby Leipzig won the title.
England is primarily known as the birth area of sports including wrestling, archery, sledding, horse racing, stone-throwing, cricket, and jumping. As a result of the rare distinction between lifestyles and close interaction between the rich and the commoner in England, the social elite became more involved in local sports. Before 1850, games such as cricket, horse racing, and boxing were dominant national sports in England. Professionalism was an issue in English sport because it was not attaining much income which led to societal conflict in British society. Sports became increasingly popular among the middle class, and the elite viewed it as a threat. Due to professionalism, running and horse-riding contests decreased in the social status, boxing was no longer a competitive sport and cricket increasingly became a sport for the socially elite.
In the mid-years of the 19th century, male public schools and universities played a vital rule in the establishment and implementation of new sports. Soccer and rugby evolved from English football. Although soccer was a favorite sport in England, it was perceived unsuitable for the female population. Field hockey was the most dominant sport in female schools.
The main sports that originated in Germany were tennis, handball, soccer, gymnastics, track and field and shooting. Gymnastics was more popular in Germany than soccer until the 1920s because of the conflict between England and Germany, the growth of the middle class in society, the growth of the interrelationship of global and national power and continuity of the sharp distinction between aristocracy and bourgeoisie Van Bottenburg, Maarten, and Beverley Jackson. Global games. Vol. 124. University of Illinois
Press, 2001.
. During the final 25 years of the 19th century, English sports began to be introduced in German solely by English immigrants and aristocratic Germans who were educated or had conducted business in England. Because of the conflict between Germany and England, Germans resisted the adoption of English sports hence between 1850 and 1950; gymnastics was the primary German sport.
Section d:
Hegemonic sports are perceived to be made by men and men are the creators of games according to society. Since historical times, the competition has been one of the most masculine activities, and despite women making recent advancements in sports, men are a significant part of the establishment and implementation of sports activities. Professional sports for example basketball, football and baseball are linked to masculinity and are socially associated with physical prowess and aggression. Despite increasing efforts to curb gender discrimination in hegemonic sports, there are extreme challenges due to male dominance in sports Markovits, Andrei S., and Steven L. Hellerman. Offside: soccer and American exceptionalism.
Vol. 61. Princeton University Press, 2014.
. To date, the male population is judged of their manliness through their ability to participate in competitive sports. Gender discrimination in hegemonic sports will likely not end because of the high male dominance in the participation and administration of sport which excludes women from such activities that are economical, culturally and publicly beneficial. The masculine nature of hegemonic also excludes women because of the assumption that sports express the truly extreme and aggressive view of men and real women ought not to possess such qualities.
Women are commonly associated with feminine sports like figure skating, gymnastics, volleyball and horse riding which are socially unacceptable for the male population Markovits, Andrei S., and David T. Smith. Sports culture among undergraduates: A study of
student-athletes and students at the University of Michigan. Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2007.
. Additionally, feminine sports are considered nonsensical by the sports organization and non-legitimate for men, which means that male players who embrace female dominated sports such as cheerleading are considered gay. Similarly, women who participate in male-dominated sports such as wrestling are perceived to be lesbian or transgender. Another sole reason that accounts for gender discrimination in hegemonic sports is that they are used to express male superiority and sexual distinction.
Female sports such as ice skating are rarely covered in social media news that comment on major sports forecasts. For instance, in the 2008 Pekin Olympic Games, women sports only occupied 27% of the media coverage.
In 1888, the first women’s soccer was recorded in Scotland to begin the evolution of football in the European trend; however, women’s soccer faced tremendous resistance in society because women were considered too fragile for the physical requirements of the game. Women in female soccer also faced challenges due to many domestic demands.
Gender discrimination in hegemonic sports could however end. In history, there has been gradual progress to incorporate women in male-dominated sports. Examples of women sports include the 1982 women’s UEFA International tournament, the 1991 FIFA women’s World Cup, the 1993 South African National women’s team and 2001 sponsored women’s South African League Markovits, Andrei S., Emily K. Albertson, and Emily K. Albertson. Sportista: female fandom in
the United States. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2012.
. Sport is considered to enhance the self-esteem of women, increase their education opportunities, boost their confidence and protest gender inequalities through positive female-male liaison.
The significant indicators that gender discrimination are likely not to end in hegemonic sports is women’s susceptibility to patriarchy, lack of education opportunities, poverty, lack of freedom, domestic and sexual violence especially in developing countries.
Women face equity challenges as sports officials and athletes. Women lack in sport leadership positions because the sport is a gendered association and all systems operate in a hegemonic masculine model Markovits, Andrei S., and Lars Rensmann. Gaming the world: how sports are reshaping global
politics and culture. Princeton University Press, 2010.
. Therefore, gender discrimination has become a prevalent practice in sports associations.
In the U.S. Women’s National Basketball Association, women occupy only 33% of managerial positions and in other continents; they are less likely to hold leadership sports positions. Recently, the International Olympic Committee attained its self-appointed threshold of at least 20% female board members. In the state Olympic governing organizations, men own 85.3% of the leadership positions while women only own 14.1% of leadership roles.
Hegemonic masculinity accounts for women’s controlled access to leadership roles in sports organizations. Men maintain the authority of athletic director roles at the top level of hegemonic sport and usually have a greater aptitude of success than their women counterparts Markovits, Andrei S., and Steven L. Hellerman. Offside: soccer and American exceptionalism.
Vol. 61. Princeton University Press, 2014.
. Another issue influencing gender equity in sports organizations is power influence. Male leaders in sports organizations acknowledge the importance of women in decision-making and their inclusion as Board of Director members. However, such male leaders do not offer any support for changes in policy to increase the number of female board members efficiently. Additionally, the recruitment process of women as members of Board of Directors is strict consisting of a gender fit that includes being highly educated, attaining top positions in previous jobs, having flexible schedules, having no young children and having proper conduct according to the standards of male leaders Markovits, Andrei S., and David T. Smith. Sports culture among undergraduates: A study of
student-athletes and students at the University of Michigan. Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2007.
. Hence, male leaders utilize power to ensure that their leadership remains predominant. Women in sport are often affected by treatment discrimination because they are excluded from access to resources, rewards or employment opportunities they justifiably deserved. Women in Senior Administration positions in the U.S. are refuted from engaging in oversight activities such as budgeting and heading men’s sports in activities which negatively affect their capabilities to establish their skills toward the position of athletic director Markovits, Andrei S., and Steven L. Hellerman. Offside: soccer and American exceptionalism.
Vol. 61. Princeton University Press, 2014.
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Works Cited
Goldblatt, David. The ball is round: a global history of football. Penguin UK, 2007.
Markovits, Andrei S., and Adam I. Green. “FIFA, the video game: a major vehicle for soccer’s
popularization in the United States.” Sport in Society 20.5-6 (2017): 716-734.
Markovits, Andrei S., and David T. Smith. Sports culture among undergraduates: A study of
student athletes and students at the University of Michigan. Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2007.
Markovits, Andrei S., Emily K. Albertson, and Emily K. Albertson. Sportista: female fandom in
the United States. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2012.
Markovits, Andrei S., and Lars Rensmann. Gaming the world: how sports are reshaping global
politics and culture. Princeton University Press, 2010.
Markovits, Andrei S., and Steven L. Hellerman. Offside: soccer and American exceptionalism.
Vol. 61. Princeton University Press, 2014.
Szymanski, Stefan. “A theory of the evolution of modern sport.” Journal of Sport History
(2008): 1-32.
Tomlinson, Alan, Andrei S. Markovits, and Christopher Young. “Introduction: Mapping sports
space.” American Behavioral Scientist 46.11 (2003): 1463-1475.
Van Bottenburg, Maarten, and Beverley Jackson. Global games. Vol. 124. University of Illinois
Press, 2001.