TOPIC: THE MISCONCEPTION ABOUT UN SHIFTING FUNDING FROM ARMS AND AMMUNITION TO INVESTING IN COMMUNITIES; REGARDING THE ROOT CAUSE OF VIOLENCE AND POVERTY WILL CREATE MORE SECURE AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES / NATIONS / COUNTRIES.
ALSO, UN RULE OF ENGAGEMENT (ROE,) IT IMPACT ON MORALE, SAFETY, PTSD AND RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………………………. ix
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi
CHAPTER
- INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………………………. 4
Purpose of the Research……………………………………………………………………………… 6
Research Question……………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Subsidiary Questions………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
Significance of Study…………………………………………………………………………………. 8
Limitations of the Research…………………………………………………………………………. 8
Delimitations of the Research………………………………………………………………………. 9
Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
Outline of the Research Study…………………………………………………………………… 11
- LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Sub-Topic 1……………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
Sub-Topic 2……………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
Sub-Topic 3……………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Chapter I
Introduction
Over the past few years, United Nations peacekeeping operations have evolved significantly into the central tools used by international communities in managing the complex crisis that poses a significant threat to international cooperation and peaceful co-existence( peacekeeping.un.org). From the beginning of the new millennium, the number of military personnel and equipment deployed in UN peacekeeping operations has increased dramatically (peacekeeping.un.org). As a result, the United Nations Peacekeeping forces have become sophisticated and grown in size over the past century. UN peacekeeping forces have evolved into being multi-dimensional. Apart from ceasefire operations, the body also focuses on supporting political processes by promoting national dialogue and reconciliation, civilian protection, disbarment of combats, and promotion of human rights and the rule of law (peacekeeping.un.org).
The main peacekeeping bodies, the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and Department of Field Support (DFS), aim to boost and professionalize the planning, management, and credibility of United Nations Peacekeeping operations. The main objective is to ensure that personnel employed by the bodies are fully aware of what is expected of them and how to conduct the same (OECD, 2014).
Since the end of the cold war, nearly 100 conflicts have come to an end globally. As much as this can be directly contributed to by countries’ efforts, other international non-governmental organizations played significant roles in aiding the overall process. Post-conflicts countries face myriads of challenges in comparison to developing but peaceful countries. The challenges include but are not limited to, weakened state capacity, distorted physical, human and social capital, destroyed economic incentives, massive poverty, and widespread unemployment. Additionally, some countries are subject to criminal elements that plunder their valuable resources and warlords who are corrupt and are willing to go the extra mile to retain power. Consequently, these adverse conditions place the post-conflicts countries at a higher risk of relapsing into violent conflicts.
As a result, the recovery policies of former war-torn countries should consider various variables. The policies ought to be focused on reducing the probability of occurrence of violent conflicts and restoring confidence in social, economic, and political institutions. Economic recovery priorities should be geared towards reducing unemployment rates, encouraging sustainable investments, mitigating business risks, and reducing inequalities in the community.
However, all this cannot be achieved by individual countries single-handedly, there must be assistance from international communities and organizations such as the UN. Until relatively recently, the United Nations has placed significant emphasis on supporting different aspects of preventing violent conflicts, recovery from the same, and peacebuilding, especially in developed war-torn countries as such United Nations Development Program (UNDP) works in conjunction with the UN in supporting countries that are currently faced with the aftermaths of conflicts through activities and actions that could help in restoring livelihoods, shelter, and government capacities. However, this has sparked several arguments and research among various peace scientists. Some are convinced that shifting funding from arms and ammunition to investing in communities, regarding the root cause of violence will help in creating a more secure and sustainable environment. On the other hand, some peace scientists have different views that allocating limited funds to the ammunition of military personnel, especially by the UN, will render most countries vulnerable to threats and violent conflicts from countries run by criminal elements and warlords.
Statement of the Problem
Until relatively recently, the United Nations has shifted its funding from arms and ammunition to investing in communities as far as the root cause of violence and poverty, such as unemployment, corruption, and inequality. This is geared towards creating more sustainable and secure communities globally. On the other hand, underfunding military operations as far as ammunition might have great consequences since it might ignite threats from warlike countries who are always not ready to relinquish power. This Resilience paper looked at the effects of shifting UN funding from arms and ammunition to investing in communities regarding the root cause of violence and poverty as far as stability and peaceful co-existence.
Purpose of the Research
This research aims to look at the impacts of shifting funding from arms and ammunition to investing in communities, regarding the root cause of violence as far as creating more secure and sustainable nations globally.
Research Question
Does shifting funding from arms and ammunition to investing in the root cause of violence and poverty create more sustainable and secure nations?
Subsidiary Questions
What are the rules of engagement employed by the UN as far as creating sustainable communities?
What are the impacts of the ROE (rules of engagement) on morale safety?
What are the impacts of the ROE on Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PSTD)?
Do the ROEs yield returns on investments?
Significance of the Study
This study will be beneficial in the field of peace science. It will bridge the current research gaps as far as investigating the impacts of shifting funding from arm acquisition to investing in the stability of nations globally. It will be the first longitudinal and secondary study that will be focused only on the United Peace Keeping Forces as far as the research topic. The study’s findings may be critical in understanding the impacts of ROE’s employed by the UN on moral safety, investment returns, and PSTD. Also, the research findings may be used by futures scholars to build on their research works by avoiding the limitations encountered by the study. Furthermore, the research study will provide insights into the progress of works of peacekeeping bodies such as the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and the Department of Filed Supports (DFS). It will help them improve their service delivery as far as ensuring the security and stability of war-torn countries.
Limitations of the Research
- The research study was conducted over a short period, which was not enough to gather all secondary materials relevant to the study questions and hypothesis, hence limiting the accuracy of the research findings
.
- This particular study’s primary methodology was secondary research, which relied on pre-existing information as far as the research topic. However, secondary reviews are always subject to selection and performance bias hence undermining the overall accuracy of the research findings herein.
- Limited study resources relevant to this research did not address the research interest satisfactorily since only a few articles, and peer-reviewed journals highlighted the impacts of shifting funding from ammunition to investing in economic and social stability globally. Additionally, there was limited research work on the effects of ROEs on PSTD.
Definitions
ROE (Rules of Engagement): Rules of Engagement are directives that dictate how military personnel are supposed to conduct themselves before or during combat with opposing forces.
UN (United Nations): This is an international organization that is mandated with maintaining peace and security in the world by fostering desirable relationships between Nations.
UNDP (United Nations Development Program): A UN body that aims at eradicating poverty and minimizing inequalities through sustainable and reliable development of Nations globally.
PSTD (Post Stress Traumatic Disorders): A mental health disorder often caused by terrible past experiences.
DPKO (Department of Peace Keeping Operations): A UN body in charge of resolving international disputes and helping post-conflict countries in recovery procedures.
DFS (Department of Field Support): Department of United Nations that is in charge of ensuring support of peacekeeping field operations and political stability.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Several scientific research works in the field of peace science have attested to the fact that almost every post-conflict city in the world experiences acute insecurity. Hill (2013) studied the economic impacts of previous violent conflicts experienced in the countries in the horn of Africa. In his research work, Hill records that the developing countries still face significant threats and are susceptible to future violent conflicts since warlike leaders lead most states. They allocate substantial public resources to ammunition and acquire firearms at the expense of eradicating poverty and ensuring economic growth. Sandler & Hartley (1995) suggest that defence economies entail applying economic reasoning and suitable methodologies to the analysis of defence-related issues.
Sandler & Hartley (1995) agree with other peer-reviewed research works that allocative efficiency is central to the study of the provision of defence within nations and internationally. They further highlight that public choice of investments can also be driven by personal motives of warlike leaders and bureaucrats. This can significantly undermine the effective allocation of resources, leading to potential waste. Economic stability comes to play when studying equilibria’ properties or investigating the paths of adjustment a nation or nations undergo after a financial shock. Defence spending can come in two primary forms, ammunition and arms acquisition or investing in economic stability. As a result, the study of defence involves myriads of issues including but not limited to the impact of defence spending on economic growth, the influence of research and development on security and civilian output, and the effect of defence sharing the burden on growth comparisons of allied nations globally.
Since the onset of the cold war, defence economics has sparked much research and interest among peace scientists, economics, and international organizations such as the UN (OECD, 2014). A growing conflict in any of the war-torn countries can seriously ignite violence among neighbouring and allied nations. As a result, peace and stability are the only remedies for confronting threats from nuclear proliferation, resource disputes, environmental stressors, ethnic conflicts, and terrorism. Thanks to international peacebuilding organizations, the defence threats of the 1990s have remained numerous and complex compared to those experienced in the present day. Although the UN has diversified its ways of resolving disputes and potential threats, the fact remains that defence policy has entered a momentous change that calls for the application of rigorous economic analysis to efficiently allocate resources among competing goals in both defence and civilian sectors.
Effects of Firearm acquisition on security and economic stability
Lethal and modern firearms play a significant role in fueling violent conflicts globally. Cukier (2002) discovered through their longitudinal research that weapons account for more than 500, 000 deaths in the world annually. Also, the World Health Organization has identified violent conflict as a pandemic that is hazardous to many netizens’ livelihoods globally. Small firearms have killed up to 3 million people in the past ten years. Cukier’s (2002) empirical study also reveals that for every single death due to violent conflicts is always accompanied by severe injuries. In Brazil, there are almost ten times as many firearms injuries in comparison to firearms deaths.
Cukier (2002) further notes in the same study that victimization effects result from violent conflicts. They are measured not only in terms of mortality and morbidity but also in terms of impact on the quality of life, inflation, disruption of essential human services and other economic impacts such as their effects on the tourism industry. For instance, in South Africa alone, the cost of the war in the past two decades surpassed $43 billion. It is believed that this is the greatest threat to its social and economic development. It has been found out that in Latin America, criminal violence is the main stumbling block to progress and has adverse effects on individual security and economic development. Violent crime and containment procedures have an estimated consumption of up to 14% of the GDP of Latin America. 10% of Brazil’s GDP goes on combatting violent criminal elements, while in Columbia, 25% of GDP goes on tackling the same (Cukier’s, 2002). Additionally, firearms account for 70% and 88% of homicides in Brazil and Columbia, respectively.
Firearms are always present in any type of conflict regardless of the geographical location of the same. The involvement of weapons in battles was first documented in 1997 in the United Nations Small Arms Panel. A filled report of 2015 revealed the geographical and technical viability of the ammunitions that were used by ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria). The presence of lethal military-grade weapons in violent conflicts can cause adverse effects and the overall cost of conflicts. When more sophisticated and powerful weapons are used during a battle, casualties are likely to increase as well as development programs of the nations involved in violent conflicts. Besides, when a country is armed with more sophisticated weapons, there is a high unlikelihood that it can be willing to negotiate a ceasefire.
Impacts of Economic growth on Security and Stability
The flow of financial assistance to the post-conflict countries has been dramatic since the 1990s (Tymigne). The share of the aid from the United Nations has been concessional with significantly high grant element and shift from project to program aid. During the Cold war era, foreign donors were keen to pick sides before releasing funding to allied countries involved in violent conflicts. For Instance, El Salvador received higher external aids during the Cold War than the post-cold war period. Restating and sustaining economic growth must be the key focus of any policymaker interested in post-c conflict recovery. A rise in the level of output per capita creates a foundation for economic recovery. There is no reliable instance of post-conflict recovery procedure without a sustainable increase in the output per capita. Higher-income levels dramatically increase the opportunity cost of violent conflicts and help consolidate peace and security.
The best structural change is the need to pay great attention to the distributive impact of growth. There is no indication of the required trade-offs between growth and equity objectives of economic policy. On the other hand, nations that paid more considerable attention to ensuring equity and social inclusion have undergone massive recovery from cold war disruptions and violent conflicts. Recovery policies should be channelled towards aspects of the economy where most people are engaged, such as agriculture, to ensure sustainability and economic growth.
Estruch et al. (2013) suggest that when individuals are gainfully employed in decent work, they earn enough income to live with dignity and are often treated fairly. Decent livelihoods help in minimizing exclusion and reducing inequality among in any nation. As a result, it maximizes social mobility and promotes resilience. When people can securely accumulate economic assets that can caution them in the event of need, they can invest accurately and improve the economy. In the long run, they are entitled to stability. This is because they can resist the pieces of advice of the warlords as far as fomenting violence. Estruch (2013) further highlights that strategies that are geared towards manage volatility of food prices should first aim at stabilizing and diversifying the incomes over long and short term durations. Both decent or diversified employment creation and enterprise creation can help in creating resilience against food price volatility as well as resilience against violent conflicts. Developing countries and post-conflict nations are vulnerable to the negative impacts of high and volatile food prices (Estruch, 2013).
Tittonel (2014) highlights that agroecosystem dynamics normally emerge from the aggregation of diversified livelihood strategies. The agroecosystem is often characterized by non-linearity and hysteresis. (Tittonel, 2014) conducted longitudinal case studies across countries in Africa to prove three key hypotheses regarding the diversity of rural livelihood strategies. The hypothesis includes diversity as an alternative system regime, diversity as a result of transformability and diversity that is determined by shifting agricultural contexts. For instance, during the case study in Tanzania, the longitudinal research suggested using the soil water index on the horizontal axis and ecosystem insurance capacity on the vertical axis. The horizontal axis describes the amount of soil water that is available for food production per capita. The vertical axis indicates the ability of the surrounding landscape as far as generating ecosystem services that can provide alternative food when the output of crops fails.
Additionally, if the government or other legitimate organizations collect sufficient tax revenues and invest it in providing infrastructure and essential services required for economy and peace to flourish, they are likely to increase resilience to violent conflicts Brautigam et al. (2008). The federal, as well as national governments, should ensure that tax collection, as well as infrastructure development, is equitable across all regions. Various donor agencies have consistently highlighted the importance of taxation and revenue collection as far as ensuring the stability and sustainability of developing and post-conflict countries. However, war-torn countries create a challenging environment for the implementation of tax reform programs.
The right kind of economic development can facilitate environmental sustainability. As a result, it can enhance and avoid undermining peace positive attributes in the society hence ensuring that a country develops resilience against violent conflicts. Klaus Toepfer, executive director of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), suggests that environmental security is the disbarment policy for the future. UNEP organized a conference comprising of 60 experts and 25 countries (OECD, 2014). The meeting was geared towards examining the roles of natural resources such as minerals, water resources, and forests to promote and prevent violent conflicts. Hillary Ben, United Kingdom’s Secretary of State for International Development, suggested in his keynote speech that National resources should not be the sources of violent conflicts.
OECD (2014) highlights that it is vital for individual post-conflict countries to ensure effective mobilization of their natural resources. This includes funding human development and recovery, reducing overdependence on foreign aid, building a contract between federal/national government and the people, strengthening inter-social relationships, and building state capacity. Brautigam et al. (2008) suggested that taxation is a central government function that shapes the relationship between the state and the society since revenues generated from the taxes allow the government to provide security and essential public services and goods. Addison et al. (2015) note that in the event of violent conflicts, federal revenues usually decline hence creating a robust and negative relationship between tax revenues and conflict measures. Fjedlstad (2013) also acknowledges that developing countries face challenges regarding increasing tax revenue and taxing a large number of citizens and enterprises. Addison et al. (2015) further highlight that citizens should be aware of new tax reforms and adapt accordingly to ensure economic and social stability and resilience to inflation.
Foreign aid from international organizations such as the UN may help build individual countries’ capacities as far as tax and revenue collection by funding tax reforms. UN notes that the ability to mobilize tax revenue is a mandatory requirement for ensuring state legitimacy. Tax compliance is the main contributor to effective tax mobilization. Ndikumana( 2015) also notes that reliable tax mobilization enables a state to deliver essential goods and services to the public. Ndikumana (2015) also suggests that effective mobilization of revenue helps expand fiscal policy space, highlighting the ability of a state to take ownership of the national development agenda. Furthermore, OECD (2014) highlights that international donors, such as the United Nations, should adopt various approaches to aid fragile and war-torn countries in tax mobilization. The strategies include broadening the tax base, better managing revenues and natural resources, minimizing tax exemptions and incentives, encouraging transparency in parastatals, and building tax morale among the public.
Environmental peacemaking ensures that parties in conflict are brought together with the sole intention of working on environmental aspects to build confidence and reduce political tensions. Environment Peacemaking entails conflict cycles that involve prevention, mitigation, and post-conflict peacebuilding. EDSP collaborator, Ken Conca from the University of Maryland, highlighted the necessary conditions for ensuring success in environmental peacebuilding. He underscored that when parties are involved in conflicts, environmental issues may be less contentious than other aspects hence providing a platform for dialogues and serving as the basis for communication between the conflicting parties. He also argues that some other vital environmental resources such as natural water sources are necessary for economic and social development; hence, nations cannot militarize the same. Furthermore, he highlights that when political borders cause disputes among the two countries, there should be joint management of abutting resource areas to ease tension among the parties.
Impacts of Rule of Engagement of UN on morale, safety, PSTD, and return on investment.
Stephens(1998) notes that the main focus of United Nations peacekeeping operations is to create a sustainable and stable environment while fostering individual nations’ capacity as far as providing security. Other areas of focus include facilitating the political process by creating dialogues and establishing legitimate institutions of governance. UN peacekeeping operations ensure all its members engage in a coordinated and coherent manner.
In the United Nations, peacekeeping bodies have developed rules of engagement to act as a necessary tool for the application of military force according to national and international policies. ROE direct how and when military troops should use violence as far as conflict resolution (Stephens, 1998). Stephens (1998) further suggests that if military operations are to be used in resolving violent conflicts, military personnel must comply with international legal principles of proportionality, which requires minimal use of force and reducing potential incidental harm.
The first rule of engagement dictates how military personnel should act as far as self-defence. ROE gives a military commander the rights to take necessary actions during self-defence. If pre-emptive self-defence is undertaken against an anticipated attack, there should be tangible evidence that the enemy was about to launch massive attacks on the troops or innocent citizens (army war college). The concept of military necessity dictates that only the required force should be used in achieving the acceptable objectives(Rowe, 1994). Rowe(1994) notes that during peaceful resolution in Bosnia, a particular rule of engagement dictated that whenever an operational situation permitted, every reasonable confrontation other that force ought to be applied in resolving disputes. This is referred to as alternatives to the use of force. Armywarcollege notes that before resorting to the use of force, military personnel should use any reasonable means to warn the perpetrators of their impending intentions. Another rule of engagement of the United Nations dictates that peacemaking forces ought to have a reliable identification of hostile parties before opening fire. Rules of Engagement also requires the military personnel to report any intentions of opening fire to the chain of command.
Bartone et al. (1998) conducted a longitudinal descriptive case study of the US Army that was deployed for peacemaking purposes in former Yugoslavia. The study was geared towards identifying the primary sources of stress and investigating the effect of these stressors on health, safety, morale, and mental preparedness of the military personnel. Bartone et al. (1998) revealed a range of varying psychological stressors across the operational phases of peacekeeping missions. Bartone et al. (1998) note further that the level of stress experienced in various stages significantly correlates with depression, post-traumatic stress disorders, and low reported morale.
Litz et al. (1997) investigated Post Traumatic Stress Disorders among US forces that were deployed to the peacemaking mission in Somalia. The research study examined a large cohort of active duty military personnel nearly five months after returning from the peacemaking mission in Somalia. Various variables of military exposure and PSTD were examined. Eight percent of the military personnel exhibited signs for PSTD. Litz et al. (1997) conclude that the deployment of military personnel to war torn-countries under the rule of engagement exposes the officers to high magnitudes of psychological disorder and PSTD.
Military operations entail complicated operations that may impact military decision-makers, subordinates, staff, field operators, adversaries, and civilians. Seminal research conducted among military personnel in the US revealed that underlying psychological stressors caused by rules of engagement might negatively influence military soldiers’ attitudes and morale as far as performing their duties (TREATY). The seminal research offered several remedies of the same. The recommendations suggest that rules of engagement should be moved away from an exclusive focus on the relationships of ethical violations and PSTD in no small examination of SUB-clinical MH problems, Combat Operational Stress Reaction (COSR) and aggression. Finding connections between COSR and ethical violations should be incorporated into military leadership training. Forbes et al. (2019) note that PSTD is one of the most common mental disorders among military personnel. In their empirical research, they examined the factors responsible for the development of PSTD among military personnel and suggested potential solutions to the same. Forbes et al. (2019) acknowledge that military personnel are likely to develop PSTD after combat due to strict engagement rules. The research notes that the soldiers may encounter a hostile environment that puts their lives in danger. Still, they don’t have permission to act in combat unless they obtain proper consent from their superiors through suitable command lines. Forbes et al. (2019) propose solutions ranging from enhancing existing treatments, pharmacotherapy, personalized medical attention, family interventions, and tailor-made support.
Forbes et al. (2019) highlight that the military budget is a vital aspect as far as ensuring the stability of any given state. However, Forbes et al. (2019) note that the ROE used during military combat undermines the productivity and efficiency of combat units hence raising questions on return on investment. Seminal research, as recorded in TREATY, notes that ROE affects soldiers’ morale, thus undermining their competency. As a result, the military budget allocated to combat units may not have expected returns on investment hence negatively affecting the economy as well as the state capacity of the nations involved in terms of resilience to food price volatility and political instability.
From the literature review, it is very evident that there are grey study materials as far as examining the effect of shifting UN funding from ammunition to eradicating factors that are the root cause of instability, such as poverty and unemployment. Most of the resources are in sync regarding the impacts of economic growth on the recovery of post-conflict Nations. A good number of the materials studies highlight that diversifying livelihoods, increasing capital, expanding revenue collection and allocation, and ensuring environmental stability affect economic growth and ensure stability. The stability of a nation entails resilience to food price volatility, poverty, and violent conflicts and threats. No single study resource is specific in indicating that shifting UN funding from ammunition to economic investment enables the stability and resilience of Nations.
A good number of the resources studied in the literature review note that the rules of engagement among military combat units lower productivity of the soldiers hence yielding low returns of investment. This undermines the economic and political stability of the Nations since public resources are wasted. The rules of engagement lower morale of the soldiers in addition to causing PSTD among the majority of them immediately they live combat units.
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