Urban forests—Australian city policies, comparative study
Introduction
Urbanization has a wide effect on forests n Europe. Forests in the urban areas are very different from forests in the rural areas in terms of their intensive use and the attention given by the public. But in the last decade, the issue of urban forestry is been given wider attention in Europe. This is the case despite the fact that major parts of Europe are urban areas (Sangster, M. 1993, 51). The continuous creation of urban forests is creating new problems and opportunities to managers and other policymakers. The forestry managers have the responsibilities of cultivating and managing trees in order to maximize their economic, sociology, and psychological importance to the society.
Managers are therefore expected to not only manage the urban forestry but also the entire landscape of the forests and this influences the entire town landscape. Proper management of the urban area means that there is proper management of the total landscape in the urban areas. But until now there is no adequate research that has been conducted on a comparative dimension in Europe. But policymakers and managers have started to realize the need to have a single report on the proper ways of managing urban forestry (Hytönen, M. 1992, 82). As a result, questions have arisen such as: which opportunities exist in the proper forestry management; which mistakes should be avoided when carrying out the research; what is the best way to carry out the research? Therefore, this research essay aims to find out how forestry management affects landscaping and the opportunities that can be enjoyed if there is proper forest management.
Description of the existing problem
Existing forests and development of new forests is receiving a lot of pressure from the public. Continues development of the urban areas is making forests to be replaced with other land uses like recreation centers and settlement area (Konijnendijk, C. 1997, 33). The impact of this is the increase in leisure time and mobility as well as a rise in per capita income thus leading to high demand for recreation (Beckers, T. 1983, 159). The effect of this is that departments responsible for urban forestry are experiencing many challenges in their duties of management. But with the resent altered attitude to the environment people are giving a closer look at the need to have good forestry management.
What is the situation like when we look from the forest side? Urban forestry is at risk due to many negative influences affecting it. The main threat is environmental pollution in urban areas. It has become obvious that economic development is limitless (Miller, R, Hauer, R, and Werner, L. 2015 102). Thus government organizations should reconsider their policies and expenses so that more funds will be channeled towards more money will be available for management of urban forestry.
The current urban forestry management has led to some effects in landscape management in Europe. This is the situation that many policymakers, landscape architecture managers, and land planners have found themselves into.
Urban forestry and landscape designs
Properly designed areas have a wider economic advantage compared to conventionally designed areas. Such cost advantages include less road construction, less clearing of scrubs and trees, less digging in preparation for home development and roads (White, D. & Kress, E. 1972, 49). Other benefits are intangible but they are equally important and necessary. Preserving vegetation and forestry leads to a sense of unity in the community. Different communities may have different landscape design which may be distinctly distinguished from each other. But the basic tools in ecological design are the same even though the end product is somehow differentiated.
Landscaping and Urban forestry history in Europe
Social stratification took place in Europe leading to a feudal society where power and governance were concentrated by clergy and monarch. Most people at that time were focusing on agriculture leading to dense settlement of people in one place. People United for political, religious and economic reasons and this led to growth and development of towns (Cornelius, R. 1995, 122). With the continuous growth of towns a new class of rich men emerged and started to fight for power from the hands of the monarch and clerks. Power relationship changed and the democratic process of choosing a leader was introduced.
Begging from mid of 19th century, government interference in Europe increased. The government provided a number of services and proper urban planning and development were carried out. At the begging, this was done to favor the upper class but with time social welfare of human was put into the account. More facilities for recreation were provided and leisure time was increased. Therefore, government and private investors increased green areas in urban areas. With time the green areas started to compete in appearances and the extent of nature appreciation.
Modern aspect of urban forestry
Urban forestry is the recent wake of go green cross to the walls of cities and towns.
Figure 1: Urban Forests: Call to Action Aerial photograph of the Toronto Waterfront, May 2010
Forests were always used for various ways and some of the ways lead to the development of towns (see) figure 2.
Landscape Analysis
Urban forestry is wider than just the ordinary landscape designs. Before actual land use is made, it is vital to incorporate urban forester’s inputs. A good illustration of how these inputs can be applied is in the approach practiced in the Gulf Island in Columbia. In this Island landscape units have partnered with local planners and the local people to conduct the landscape (Hirvonen, 1977). The different units work to bring together information on topography, climate, soil, geography hydrology.
In essence, the accompanying report and the final maps are represented with non-technical languages. Jargons in the report such as obscure, subzone, and podzol are quite confusing rather than communicating in the landscape analysis. Landscape analysis was necessary to provide planers with the background information that they needed to be able to perform the planning activity. But some factors like economic and social factors were left with the planner to decide.
The major consideration that should be included during landscaping planning is community involvement. It is the community that provides the required data is needed during the planning. When the planner spent a day with the resident, then the chances of accepting their final report increased. Individuals in the community who are concerned about their surrounding were ready to take part in the exercise; urban forester and planner took advantage of such individuals and acquired better ideas concerning the environment.
Urban forestry thus involves the knowledge of natural landscape and shows how vegetation impacts the landscape. Urban forester major role is to acquire data and interpret the data in the proper way so as to be understood by various categories of people affected by forestry planning.
Opportunities for urban forestry
As already stated urban forestry have a number of benefits in the ecosystem. Thus, proper management and landscaping have more wide-ranging opportunities. It should be considered that plants have a significant role in the ecosystem and to develop a sound land planning then there should be sound management of vegetation. The following are some of the benefits that can be obtained from the proper management of the vegetation.
Air pollution. Trees act as a filter for some of the gases that are released in the ecosystem (Hill, A. 1971, 343). Trees that are planned along the high ways and railways help in reducing emissions released by the automobiles. But some species of trees filter air better than others and thus trees planted in the urban areas should be carefully chosen due to their capacity and not for beauty reasons (Hirvonen, H. 1977, 276)
Noise abatement. Trees planted in the urban areas act as a buffer for traffic and other noises from the industries (Simson, A& Ryan, J. 2001, 78). Proper landscaping can be practiced to separate residential area and an industrial complex. In addition to acting s a noise buffer, the landscaping will act as a home for wildlife, recreation place, windbreaker zones, and firebreak area.
Physical and biological control. Urban forestry provide shelter and food to wild animals, prevent soil erosion from hillsides, acts as river banks and maintain a certain level of water banks in an area (Jorgensen, E. 1977, 269)
Production of wood and fiber. Urban forestry can be used as an economic opening through the selling of woods and fiber. In Europe, it has been realized that properly planted woodlands can be used by the public for educational purposes.
Amenity values. Residents of urban areas should be provided with the opportunity to move and see different environments. When the need for leisure and relaxing comes along they should not move so far to look for it. Therefore, including forested parklands during town development is very important,
All of the above opportunities are directly related to management. When the land engineer or landscape architecture is narrow-minded they ignore the need for including green parklands during town development and planning.
Principles to deal with existing problems
Urban forest actors. Initial urban forests were owned by feudal rulers and the ownership was transferred to the rich class who ascended into power. Financing the urban forestry went in the paths of ownership but in the mid of 19th century, the central and local government took control. The continuous support of the urban areas by the government has increased growth of these forests and the public continue to raise demand for more recreation areas. Therefore, managers should follow the example set by the government and invest more in the exercise. In addition, the local and central government should continue with the tread and bring a wider variety of expertise to participate in the management position.
Urban forest policies. Initial all policies were made to provide authorities with recreation areas, hunting places and timber production (Konijnendijk, C. 1997, 35). But from the 17th-century recreation became an interest to all people and policies change with the goal of providing equal opportunity to everyone. But as more people were becoming involved in the forestry activities they policies were adjusted to enhance forest conservation. A continues gradual change of policies to meet the new demands in the society should be is necessary.
Urban forest management. Management of urban forests goes in the line of forest policies. The management has evolved over time especially after the forestry practice and science. Urban forestry is praised as a place of testing new species of trees and concept such as thriving under pressure are extracted. The management at times is in conflict with the public especially due to the involvement of different stakeholders and changes in forestry practices. To the very date, there are some parts of the forests that have decayed logs since the public is opposed to practices of forest management. But there should be a clear demarcation to that will give managers the right to take necessary action was a need arise. The action taken should be for the well been of the forests.
Conflicts over forests. Most of the forestry management policies that have been formulated are done so to solve existing social conflicts. The conflicts originated during when the feudal ruler and the public fought over the right to own and access forests. In modern society, a lot of conflicts have emerged over conservation responsibilities, urban development and housing in the forest areas. The conflicts affect the operation of forest management and better policies should be implemented to avoid the spread of such conflicts.
Conclusion
In conclusion, urban forestry as a major issue that continues to affect the landscape management and landscape architecture. Managing urban forestry is not an easy task due to the many challenges faced in the exercise. But there are many opportunities that accrue to proper management of forest and town development. The manager should, therefore, apply better policies that will aid in ensuring that there is development in the forestry sector. This research essay has shown the policies that can be employed to solve the existing challenges as well as take advantage of the available opportunities. It’s upon the forestry manager to realize that proper forest management means management of the forest areas and the entire landscape where the forests are. Forest landscape affects the entire town landscape and thus its success has wide benefits.
Work cited
Beckers, T., 1983. Planning for leisure: a socio-historical study into government intervention in recreation and leisure. Planning for leisure: a socio-historical study into government intervention in recreation and leisure, pp.156-198.
Cornelius, R., 1995. Geschichte der Waldentwicklung: die Veränderung der Wälder durch die Waldnutzungen und Immissionsbelastungen seit dem Mittelalter. Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz, pp. 216-225
Hill, A.C., 1971. Vegetation: a sink for atmospheric pollutants.Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 21(6), pp.341-346.
Hirvonen, H.E., 1977. The role of urban forestry in regional landscape design. The Forestry Chronicle, 53(5), pp.275-277.
Hytönen, M., 1992. Proceedings of the IUFRO interim meeting and excursion in Finland, Estonia and Russia, 25 September-8 October, 1991. IUFRO subject groups: S6. 01 Forest recreation, landscape planning and nature conservation. S6. 02-04 Economic evaluation of multifunctional forestry. IUFRO, pp.76-96
Jorgensen, E., 1977. Vegetation needs and concerns in urban areas. The Forestry Chronicle, 53(5), pp.267-270.
Konijnendijk, C.C., 1997. A short history of urban forestry in Europe. Journal of arboriculture, 23, pp.31-39.
Konijnendijk, C.C., 1997. A short history of urban forestry in Europe. Journal of arboriculture, 23, pp.31-39.
Miller, R.W., Hauer, R.J. and Werner, L.P., 2015. Urban forestry: planning and managing urban greenspaces. Waveland press, pp. 86-102
Sangster, M., 1993. Urban fringe forestry in Great Britain.Journal of Arboriculture, 19, pp.51-51.
Simson, A. and Ryan, J., 2001. Woodland design. Leeds Metropolitan University, pp 72-54.